Navigation

Knowing your position on a map and being able to communicate that knowledge is crucial for successful land navigation, effective employment of direct and indirect fire, tactical air support, medical evacuation, valid target acquisition, accurate reporting of NBC contamination, and obtaining emergency resupply. This chapter explains how to determine and report positions using geographical coordinates, Universal Transverse Mercator grids, the military grid reference system, and the use of grid coordinates.

Procedure:

1. Using your compass, take azimuths to two or more reference points (e.g., a water tower and a road junction).
2. Convert the magnetic azimuths to grid azimuths using the declination information on your map.
3. Determine the grid back azimuths for each reference point by subtracting 180° from the grid azimuth (or adding 180° if necessary to keep it within 0–360°).
4. Plot these grid back azimuths on your map, drawing lines in the direction of each back azimuth.
5. The point where these lines intersect is your current location.
6. For more details or advanced techniques, consult FM 21-26 or ask a trained individual (e.g., squad leader).

Procedure:

1. When working with a map that has an east G-M angle:
- (a) To plot a magnetic azimuth on the map, first convert it to a grid azimuth by subtracting the G-M angle from the magnetic azimuth.
- (b) To use a magnetic azimuth in the field with a compass, first change the grid azimuth plotted on the map to a magnetic azimuth by adding the G-M angle to the grid azimuth.
- (c) If the G-M angle is greater than the grid azimuth, convert it by subtracting the G-M angle from the grid azimuth to get the magnetic azimuth.

2. Use the diagrams in Figures 6-10 through 6-12 for visual reference when performing these conversions.

Notes:
• Always ensure that the declination diagram is correctly interpreted based on your map's specific G-M angle value.
• A simple mistake of 1 degree could be significant in the field.

Procedure:

1. Draw a vertical or grid-north line (prong):
- Align this line with the vertical lines on the map.

2. From the base of the grid-north line, draw an arbitrary line at a roughly right angle to north, regardless of the actual value of the azimuth in degrees.

3. Examine the declination diagram on the map and determine the direction of magnetic north relative to that of the grid-north prong (right-left or east-west).

4. Draw a magnetic prong from the apex of the grid-north line in the desired direction.

5. Determine the value of the G-M angle and draw an arc from the grid prong to the magnetic prong, placing the value of the G-M angle on the diagram.

6. Complete the diagram by drawing arcs from each reference line to the arbitrary line. A glance at the completed diagram shows whether the given azimuth or desired azimuth is greater, and thus whether the known difference between the two must be added or subtracted.

7. Use this diagram for all conversions of azimuths required when working with a map for the first time.

8. Construct a G-M angle conversion table on the margin of the map if needed for convenience.

Notes:
• The inclusion of the true-north prong in relationship to the conversion is of little importance.
• Always ensure that the declination diagram is correctly interpreted based on your map's specific G-M angle value.
• A simple mistake of 1 degree could be significant in the field.

Objective: Convert a grid azimuth from a map into a magnetic azimuth for use with a compass in the field.

Procedure:
1. Draw a vertical or grid-north line (prong) aligned with the vertical lines on the map. This is your reference point.
2. From the base of this line, draw an arbitrary line at roughly a right angle to represent the azimuth direction (regardless of its actual degree value).
3. Examine the declination diagram and determine the direction of magnetic north relative to grid north (east or west). Draw a magnetic prong from the apex of the grid-north line in that direction.
4. Measure and draw an arc between the grid-north and magnetic-north prongs, marking the G-M angle value on it.
5. Complete the diagram by drawing arcs from each reference line (grid north and magnetic north) to the arbitrary line.
6. Compare the values of the given azimuth and desired azimuth to determine whether you must add or subtract the G-M angle for conversion.

Notes:
• Always ensure that the declination diagram is correctly interpreted based on your map's specific G-M angle value.
• Use this method when no conversion notes are provided with the diagram.

Step 1: Know Where You Are

To successfully navigate, you must always know your current location on both the map and the ground. This includes understanding:

• Directional orientation: Your position relative to cardinal directions.
• Distance to objective: How far you are from your destination.
• Landmarks and features: Nearby terrain features or other recognizable points.
• Impassable terrain, enemy positions, and danger areas: Awareness of obstacles, threats, and hazardous zones.
• Terrain advantages/disadvantages: Understanding how the landscape may help or hinder your movement.

To accomplish this step, you must be able to:

1. Read a map accurately.
2. Recognize and identify terrain features.
3. Determine and estimate direction using a compass or other tools.
4. Measure distances by pacing or using a measuring tool on the map.
5. Estimate your position through resection (using known points to triangulate your location).

### Procedure: Locate an Unknown Point on a Map and on the Ground by Intersection Using Compass

Objective: Determine the location of an unknown point using map, compass, and intersection techniques.

Conditions:
• Given a standard 1:50,000 scale military map of the area.
• The location of two known points.
• A compass, straight edge, coordinate scale and protractor (GTA 5-2-12), pencil, and an object or terrain feature.

Standards:
• Determine the 100,000-meter-square identification letters and six-digit grid coordinates of the unknown point to within 100 meters.

Performance Steps:
1. Use the map and compass method (figure 071-329-1014-1):
- a. Determine the G-M angle of the map you are using. This is the difference between magnetic north and grid north.
- b. Locate and mark your position on the map.
- c. Convert the magnetic azimuth to the unknown point (e.g., 22 degrees) into a grid azimuth by adding or subtracting the G-M angle (e.g., 10 degrees easterly, resulting in a grid azimuth of 32 degrees).
- d. Place the protractor on the map with its zero-degree mark pointing to the top of the map (North) and the index point centered over your location.
- e. Mark the tick at the calculated grid azimuth (e.g., 32 degrees) and draw a line from your position along this azimuth.
2. Move to or call a second known position from which the unknown point can be seen. Locate this on the map.
3. Repeat steps c and d for the second known position to create a second line.
4. Where the two lines cross is the location of the unknown point.

Note: The example map used in the procedure is not to scale, but an easterly G-M angle of 10 degrees is used as an example.

Evaluation Guidance: Refer to chapter 1, paragraph 1-9e (1) and (2).

### Procedure: Orient a Map to the Ground Using Terrain Features

Objective: Match terrain features on the map with physical features on the ground to orient the map.

Steps:
1. Hold the map in a horizontal position. This ensures that the map is parallel to the ground and easier to align with visible features.
2. Line up features on the ground with those on the map. Identify natural or man-made features (e.g., rivers, roads, hills) that are visible both on the map and in the real world. Align these features carefully to ensure accuracy.
3. Check orientations obtained by this method:
- Place a compass along one of the North-South grid lines on the map. This helps confirm that the map is not oriented 180 degrees out (i.e., upside down).
- Alternatively, align two or more features to verify orientation.
4. Incorporate the declination constant in determining the 30-degree margin of error for accuracy.

Evaluation Preparation:
• Use an area of terrain with identifiable natural and/or man-made features.
• Provide a field table and a 1:50,000-scale map of the area.
• Brief the Soldier to orient the map to within 30 degrees of north using terrain features.

Performance Measures:
• Matched terrain features by holding the map in a horizontal position and lining up the features on the ground.
• Checked orientations using a compass or multiple feature alignment.

References Required: FM 3-25.26

Colors are used to facilitate the identification of features on a military map:

• Black: Indicates cultural (man-made) features such as buildings and roads, surveyed spot elevations, and all labels.
• Red-Brown: Combines red and brown to identify cultural features, relief features, nonsurveyed spot elevations, and elevation such as contour lines on red-light readable maps.
• Blue: Identifies hydrography or water features such as lakes, swamps, rivers, and drainage.
• Green: Identifies vegetation with military significance such as woods, orchards, and vineyards.
• Brown: Identifies all relief features and elevation such as contours on older edition maps and cultivated land on red-light readable maps.
• Red: Classifies cultural features, such as populated areas, main roads, and boundaries, on older maps.
• Other Colors: Occasionally used to show special information. These are indicated in the marginal information of the map.

In cities, locations are easy to find because streets have names and buildings have numbers; an address is sufficient. However, finding locations in undeveloped areas or unfamiliar parts of the world can be challenging. To cope with this problem, a uniform and precise system of referencing has been developed.

Procedure:

1. Orient your map as closely as possible using one of the previously mentioned methods (e.g., compass, sun, or stars).
2. Identify a feature visible on the map and in real life, such as a water tower.
3. Place a ruler or straightedge on the map so that its edge is aligned with the symbol for the water tower.
4. Align the ruler so it points directly at the actual water tower in the field.
5. Draw a line along the ruler, which will cross the water tower symbol on the map.
6. Repeat this process with another feature, such as a road junction.
7. Use the same straightedge to draw another line from the road junction symbol on the map to the actual road junction in the field.
8. The point where the two lines intersect is your current location (this method is called resection).
9. For greater accuracy, use a third feature and draw a third line that intersects at the same point.
10. Do not move your map once it has been properly oriented.

NOTE: The above figures are true for a 10-meter or a 20-foot contour interval. If the map has a different contour interval, just adjust the arithmetic. For instance, with one contour line in 100 meters, a 20-meter interval would give a 20-percent slope.

Procedure:

1. Determine the magnetic variation (also known as the grid-magnetic angle) for your area using the map's marginal information or a magnetic variation diagram.

2. To adjust from grid to magnetic bearing:
- If the variation is west, turn the compass housing west by the number of degrees indicated on the map (e.g., 3°17′ west).
- If the variation is east, turn the housing east by the same amount.

3. To adjust from magnetic to grid bearing: Reverse the steps above.

Notes:
• Magnetic variation changes over time, so always check for the most recent annual change (e.g., 01′ westerly per year) and apply it if necessary.
• This adjustment is crucial when using a compass with a map in areas where magnetic variation exceeds 5°.

Procedure:

1. Identify a clear, distinct shadow in the photograph.
2. Determine the number of hours before or after noon that the photo was taken using marginal information.
3. Multiply the number of hours by 15 degrees to calculate the angle adjustment needed.
4. Use a protractor to measure this angle from the direction of the shadow:
- Before noon: Adjust left of the shadow fall.
- After noon: Adjust right of the shadow fall.

Details:
• This method is most accurate for photographs taken within three hours of noon.
• The sun moves from east through north at noon to west, and shadows follow the opposite direction.
• Beyond 3 hours from noon, adjustments must be made based on time of year and latitude.

To determine your location using a military map:

1. Identify grid squares: Look for black lines running north-south and east-west that form small squares called 'grid squares'.
2. Locate the grid square numbers: Read from left to right along the bottom of the map to find the line that borders the grid square on the left.
3. Find the east-west line: Read up from the bottom of the map to locate the line that borders the grid square along the bottom.
4. Combine numbers: The number for the vertical (left-to-right) line and the horizontal (upward) line form a six-digit coordinate. For example, if you find the left border at 11 and the bottom border at 81, your location is in grid square 1181.

Additional Precision: To pinpoint your exact position within a grid square:
• Imagine each grid square has ten lines dividing it into smaller sections.
• If you are halfway between line 11 and line 12, the first added number is 5, making the first half of your location 115.
• If you are three tenths of the way between line 81 and line 82, the second added number is 3, making the second half of your location 813.
• Combine both halves to get a more precise coordinate: 115813.

Note: If you are exactly on a grid line (e.g., line 81), the corresponding number would be 810 instead of 813.

Procedure:

1. Orient the map on a flat surface by the terrain association method.
2. Locate at least two known distant locations or prominent features on the ground and mark them on the map.
3. Lay a straightedge on the map using a known position as a pivot point. Rotate the straightedge until the known position on the map is aligned with the known position on the ground.
4. Draw a line along the straightedge away from the known position on the ground toward your position.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 using a second known position.
6. The intersection of the lines on the map is your location. Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.

Objective: Identify the best route between two points on a map using terrain association.

Procedure:
1. Receive Map and Instructions: The Soldier is given a map with two plotted points (1,000 to 2,000 meters apart).
2. Determine Route: The Soldier must identify the best route between the two points based on terrain features.
3. Explain Reasoning: The Soldier must explain why they selected this particular route.
4. Time Limit: This task must be completed within 10 minutes.

Note: The best route must have been pre-determined by a subject matter expert (SME) before the test.

Procedure: Identify Graphic Symbols on Map Overlay

Steps:
1. Place overlay grid register marks over grid intersections. Ensure the overlay is correctly aligned with the map's grid system.
2. Identify marginal information. Look for details such as scale, legend, and other map-specific data located along the edges of the map.
3. Identify security classification. Determine whether the map or overlay contains any security-related markings (e.g., confidential, secret, top secret).
4. Identify graphic symbols. Recognize and interpret all military symbols on the overlay, including tactical control symbols, weapon symbols, armored vehicle symbols, fortification and obstacle symbols, tactical wire symbols, mine symbols, and indirect fire symbols.

Details:
• This procedure is part of a map reading and land navigation skill set.
• The Soldier must perform this task without using any references or aids.
• Correct identification of symbols ensures accurate situational awareness and mission execution.
• If the Soldier cannot identify any symbol, they should not guess but instead request clarification.

Warnings:
• Incorrect placement of the overlay can lead to misinterpretation of tactical information.
• Misidentification of symbols may result in operational errors or compromised security.

To identify and interpret the sheet number on a military map:

1. Locate the sheet number, which is found in bold print in both the upper right and lower left areas of the margin, and in the center box of the adjoining sheets diagram located in the lower right margin.
2. The sheet number is used as a reference to link specific maps to overlays, operations orders, and plans.
3. For maps at 1:100,000 scale and larger, sheet numbers are based on an arbitrary system that allows for the ready orientation of maps at scales of 1:100,000, 1:50,000, and 1:25,000.

Note: This information is critical for referencing specific map sheets in military operations.

Procedure:

1. Locate the legend panel at the bottom of the map.
2. Study the conventional signs or symbols used to represent objects on the ground:
- These are simplified representations, not exact images of real-world features.
3. Understand that the centre base of each symbol indicates the position of the object it represents on the map.
4. Use this knowledge to accurately interpret and locate features such as roads, rivers, buildings, and terrain types.

Procedure:

1. Refer to the Legend: Always consult the map's legend when using a new topographic map. The legend contains symbols specific to that map series or sheet.

2. Understand Symbol Design: Symbols on maps are designed to resemble features they represent, or to logically imply them if direct representation is not possible (e.g., an open-pit mining operation may be represented by a small black drawing of a crossed hammer and pickax).

3. Recognize Feature Proportions: Understand that not all features can appear in true proportion on the map due to scale limitations. Features are often simplified or reduced for clarity.

4. Interpret Symbol Positioning: Symbols are positioned so their center remains at the true location of the feature they represent, except when adjacent to major roads. In such cases, the symbol may be slightly adjusted to maintain its relationship with the road.

5. Use Reference Materials: If needed, refer to FM 21-31 for a detailed description of topographic features and authorized abbreviations used on military maps.

Hatchuring is an alternative to contour lines used by some map makers to indicate the steepness of terrain:

1. Thick strokes close together: Indicate very steep grades (e.g., 1 in 2 to 1 in 3 slope).
2. Thick strokes farther apart: Indicate moderate slopes (e.g., 1 in 4 to 1 in 6 slope).
3. Thin strokes close together: Indicate gentle slopes (e.g., 1 in 8 to 1 in 10 slope).
4. In European maps, hatchuring can also be expressed as degrees of slope:
- A slope of 1 in 56 equals a one-degree slope.
5. Example: Fig. 3 shows the same terrain as Fig. 1 but with hatchuring instead of contour lines.

Title: Learn the Basics of Map Reading and Land Navigation

Key Concepts in Map Reading:
• Extracting information: Understanding how to interpret symbols, contours, and other map features.
• Grid references: Learning to identify and use grid coordinates for precise location tracking.
• Taking bearings: Using a compass to determine direction based on the map's orientation.
• Measuring distances: Calculating distances using scale bars or rulers on the map.

Map Craft:
• The ability to read and interpret maps is referred to as 'map craft'.
• It involves understanding how the ground relates to the map and vice versa.
• Practicing these skills regularly enhances your ability to navigate effectively in the wilderness.

Procedure:

1. Understand the grid coordinate reading rule: Always read to the RIGHT and then UP. The first half of the reported set of coordinate digits represents the easting (left-to-right), and the second half represents the northing (bottom-to-top).

2. Grid Zone Identification:
- Use the number 16 to locate a point within zone 16, which is an area 6° wide and extends between 80°S latitude and 84°N latitude.

3. Grid Zone Designation:
- Use the number and letter combination (e.g., 16S) to further locate a point within the grid zone designation, which is a quadrangle 6° wide by 8° high. There are 19 of these quads in zone 16.

4. 100,000-Meter Square Identification:
- Add two more letters to locate a point within the 100,000-meter grid square (e.g., 16SGL locates the point within the 100,000-meter square GL in the grid zone designation 16S).

5. 10,000-Meter Square Identification:
- Each side of the 100,000-meter square is divided into 10 equal parts (10,000 meters apart). Use coordinates like 16SGL08 to locate a point within this square. These lines appear as index grid lines on maps at 1:100,000 and larger.

6. 1,000-Meter Square Identification:
- Each side of the 10,000-meter square is divided into 10 equal parts (1,000 meters apart). Use coordinates like 16SGL0182 to locate a point within this square. The easting and northing values give the location of the southwest corner of grid square 0182 or to the nearest 1,000 meters.

7. 100-Meter Identification:
- Use the grid coordinate scale to divide the 1,000-meter grid squares into 10 equal parts (each part is 100 meters) for more precise location identification.

8. 10-Meter Identification:
- On a 1:50,000 map scale, use divisions every 50 meters; on a 1:25,000 map scale, use divisions every 20 meters to estimate the location of a point to the nearest 10 meters. Example: 16SGL01948253 (gas tank).

9. Precision:
- The precision of a point’s location is determined by the number of digits in the coordinates; more digits mean greater precision.

Procedure:

1. Orient the map on a flat surface by the terrain association method.
2. Locate and mark your position on the map.
3. Lay a straightedge on the map with one end at the user’s position (A) as a pivot point; then, rotate the straightedge until the unknown point is sighted along the edge.
4. Draw a line along the straightedge.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 at position (B) and check for accuracy.
6. The intersection of the lines on the map is the location of the unknown point (C). Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.

Purpose: To measure the distance between two points on a map using its scale.

Steps to Measure Distance:
1. Locate the scale: Check the bottom and top of the map for the scale (e.g., _Scale 1:50,000_).
2. Understand the scale ratio: This means that 1 unit on the map equals 50,000 units on the ground.
3. Measure distance on the map: Use a ruler or string to measure the straight-line distance between two points on the map.
4. Convert to real-world distance: Multiply the measured distance by the scale ratio (e.g., if you measure 2 inches, multiply by 50,000 to get 100,000 inches in real life).

Example: If your map has a scale of _1:50,000_, then 1 inch on the map equals 50,000 inches (or approximately 4,167 feet) on the ground.

Objective: Measure the straight-line distance between two points on a map with no more than 5 percent error.

Procedure:
1. Gather Materials: Obtain a standard 1:50,000-scale military map, a strip of paper with a straight edge, and a pencil.
2. Align Paper: Place the strip of paper on the map so that it aligns with the two points to be measured.
3. Mark Points: Mark both points on the paper using the pencil.
4. Measure Distance: Use the scale on the map to measure the distance between the two marks on the paper in meters.
5. Error Tolerance: Ensure that the measurement is accurate within no more than 5 percent error.

Objective: Orient a map using field-expedient methods when no compass or recognizable terrain features are available.

Steps:
1. Use any of the field-expedient methods described in Chapter 9, paragraph 9-5 of FM 3-25.26 (see Figure 11-6).
2. These methods may include using natural indicators such as the position of the sun or stars, shadows, or other environmental cues.
3. Ensure that the map's north-south grid lines are aligned with the actual direction of the terrain based on these field-expedient observations.
4. Verify your orientation by checking if landmarks and features on the map match their positions on the ground as best as possible.

Procedure:

Step 1: Understand Basic Map Terminology
• Familiarize yourself with terms such as contours, grid references, and magnetic variation.
• Contours represent elevation changes on the map, while grid references are used to pinpoint locations precisely.
• Magnetic variation refers to the difference between true north and magnetic north, which affects compass readings.

Step 2: Identify Key Features on the Map
• Look for landmarks, rivers, roads, and mountains that can help you orient yourself.
• Use grid lines to determine your position or destination accurately.

Step 3: Measure Distances on a Map
• Use the map's scale (usually found in the corner) to estimate distances between points.
• Place a ruler along the route and compare it with the scale to calculate the actual distance.

Step 4: Determine Direction Using a Compass
• Align your compass with the map’s north-south grid lines to establish true north.
• Adjust for magnetic variation if necessary, using the value provided on the map.
• Use the compass to take bearings and navigate towards your destination.

Step 5: Plan Your Navigation Route
• Create a navigation route plan by identifying key points along your journey.
• Record these points on a navigation route plan card for easy reference during travel.

Warnings:
• Always cross-check map readings with the actual terrain to avoid disorientation.
• Be aware of potential errors in compass readings due to magnetic interference or incorrect calibration.

Procedure:

1. Identify physical features on topographical maps, which are represented using contour lines, symbols, and marginal information.
2. Recognize key terms used to describe map features:
- Basin: An area of reasonably level ground surrounded by hills or drained by a river and its tributaries.
- Breakaway: A small gully or low cliff line formed by erosion.
- Crest: The highest part of a hill or mountain range, from which the ground slopes down in opposite directions.
- Escarpment: A steep hillside formed by a sudden drop in ground level, often coming off a plateau.
- Gorge: A deep ravine with very steep sides.
- Knoll: A small knob-like hill.
- Plateau: A generally level elevated region of considerable extent.
- Ravine: A long, deep valley worn by a stream.
- Re-entrant: A valley or ravine located between two spurs running inwards toward the hill or mountain-top.

Procedure:

1. Examine the map carefully to identify terrain features such as hills, valleys, ridges, and depressions.
2. Note the contour lines on the map to determine elevation changes and landforms.
3. Identify natural and man-made landmarks that can be used for orientation and navigation.
4. Estimate distances between key points using the scale on the map.
5. Visualize the terrain as it appears on the ground based on the information provided by the map.

Notes:
• Understanding the terrain helps in planning routes and avoiding obstacles.
• Terrain association is a critical skill for land navigation, especially when visibility is limited.
• Use this knowledge to make informed decisions during movement.

Procedure:

1. Understand that map accuracy is the degree of conformity with which horizontal positions and vertical values are represented on a map in relation to an established standard.
2. The NGA determines these standards based on user requirements.
3. Maps are considered to meet accuracy requirement standards unless otherwise specified in the marginal information.
4. When using any map, check the marginal information for details about its accuracy and other relevant data.

Purpose: To accurately locate positions on a map using grid references.

Steps:
1. Identify Eastings and Northings:
- Eastings are vertical lines that run from bottom to top (south to north) and divide the map from west to east. They are numbered from west to east.
- Northings are horizontal lines that run from left to right (west to east) and divide the map from south to north. They are numbered from south to north.
2. Grid Squares:
- The intersection of an easterly and northerly grid line forms a square known as a grid square.
3. Reading Grid References:
- A six-figure grid reference is used for precise location identification:
- The first three digits represent the easting (horizontal position).
- The last three digits represent the northing (vertical position).
4. Use of Grid References:
- Use grid references to identify specific locations on a map, such as waypoints or landmarks.

Notes:
• Always ensure that you are using the correct map scale and edition number when reading grid references.
• Practice identifying eastings and northings before heading into the field.

Procedure:

1. Locate the marginal information around the edges of the map, which contains essential details for using the map effectively.
2. Identify key components of marginal information:
- Sheet Name: Usually located at the top centre of the map.
- Map Edition: Located at the top right of the map.
- Sheet Number: Maps are commonly referred to by sheet number, name, and edition.
- Grid Reference Block: Located at the bottom of the map; explains how to calculate a six-figure grid reference.
- Legend Panel: Located at the bottom of the map; provides a legend for conventional signs used on the map.
- Sheet History: Located at the bottom of the map; gives production details.
- Index to Adjoining Sheets: Located at the bottom of the map; helps locate adjacent maps.
- Magnetic Variation Information: Located at the bottom of the map; provides annual magnetic variation data.
- Reliability Diagram: If present, this diagram indicates the reliability of information shown on the map.
- Representative Fraction (RF): Usually located at the top left of the map; indicates the scale of the map as a ratio.
- Linear Scale: Located at the bottom centre of the map; provides a visual representation of distance on the ground.

An azimuth is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a north base line (true north, magnetic north, or grid north). The azimuth is the most common military method to express direction.

• A full circle consists of 360 degrees or 6400 mils.
• Azimuths are used for navigation and orientation in the field.
• The point from which an azimuth originates is considered the center of an imaginary circle, with 360° (or 6400 mils) around it.

Procedure:

1. Locate the declination diagram at the bottom of your map (Figure 10).
2. Identify the three types of north shown on the diagram: true north, grid north, and magnetic north.
3. Understand that grid north is based on the map’s coordinate system, while magnetic north is where a compass points due to Earth's magnetic field.
4. Recognize that there may be a difference (G-M angle) between grid north and magnetic north, which must be accounted for when converting azimuths.

Details:
• The G-M angle can vary depending on your geographic location and the map’s publication date.
• In some maps, especially older ones, the declination diagram may show reversed conversion factors if the G-M angle is negative or in a different direction.
• Always refer to the map's declination diagram for accurate conversions between magnetic and grid azimuths.

Objective: Understand how to interpret and use the G-M angle for accurate azimuth conversion.

Procedure:
1. Identify the G-M angle, which is the angular difference between grid north and magnetic north, shown as an arc connecting their respective prongs in the declination diagram.
2. The value of the G-M angle is expressed to the nearest ½ degree with mil equivalents rounded to the nearest 10 mils.
3. This angle is essential for converting azimuths between map and ground measurements, as failure to adjust for it results in navigational errors equal to the size of the declination angle.

Notes:
• The G-M angle is typically found near the declination diagram or written in the margin of the map.
• Always verify that you are using the correct value for your specific map.

Title: Understand the Importance of Land Navigation for Bushwalkers and Travellers

Purpose of Maps:
• Finding your way: Maps allow users to navigate through unfamiliar terrain.
• Recognizing features: They help identify geographical landmarks, rivers, roads, and other important features on the ground.
• Understanding spatial relationships: Maps provide a visual representation of how different areas relate to each other.

Why It Matters:
• Maps are essential for bushwalkers and travellers in remote or outback regions where GPS signals may be unreliable.
• They allow users to plan routes, avoid dangerous terrain, and ensure safe travel.
• Maps assist in the transmission of information between individuals or groups during an expedition.

The relationship between degrees and mils is based on dividing a circle into 6400 mils versus 360 degrees.

• A full circle equals 6400 mils or 360 degrees.
• Therefore, 1 degree = 17.78 mils (since 6400 ÷ 360 ≈ 17.78).

This conversion is essential for military applications such as artillery and navigation.

There are three base lines used to express direction:

1. True North
- Defined as a line from any point on Earth's surface to the north pole.
- All lines of longitude represent true north.
- Symbolized by a star on maps.

2. Magnetic North
- Direction to the north magnetic pole, indicated by the needle of a magnetic instrument (e.g., lensatic or M2 compasses).
- Symbolized by a line ending with half an arrowhead.

3. Grid North
- Established using vertical grid lines on maps.
- Symbolized by the letters GN or the letter “y”.

These base lines serve as reference points for measuring direction and azimuths.

Map references are used to locate a specific position on a map using grid coordinates:

1. Grid lines: Vertical numbers indicate longitude (e.g., 147 degrees 15 minutes), and horizontal numbers indicate latitude (e.g., 34 degrees 50 minutes south of the equator).
2. Base line reference: The number shown on the map (e.g., 976,000) represents the distance in yards from a base line.
3. Grid squares: Each square is typically 1000 yards unless otherwise marked. Smaller squares within each are divided into ten parts for more precise location:
- A six-figure reference (e.g., 782.583) indicates the position in the third square, second row from the bottom.
4. Reading order: Map references are read west to east first, then south to north.
5. Example: The reference 78.58 means you look along grid line 78 until finding the square starting at 58.

To use attack points as reference for finding control points in the woods:

1. Identify permanent known landmarks that are easily identifiable on the ground, such as stream junctions, bridges, and road intersections.
2. Use these landmarks as reference points to locate nearby control points that may be difficult to see directly.
3. Cross-reference attack points with the map to ensure accurate navigation through wooded areas.

Note: Attack points are critical for orienteering in dense or complex terrain where visibility is limited.

To use terrain association instead of a compass for orientation:

1. Avoid relying on the compass to orient the map.
2. Use natural features such as hills, valleys, rivers, and vegetation patterns to match with the map.
3. Identify prominent landmarks on the ground that correspond to those on the map.
4. Cross-check your position by comparing terrain features with the map at regular intervals.

Note: This technique is recommended for orienteering and improves accuracy in navigation without the need for a compass.

To use the thumbing technique for location tracking:

1. Fold the map to a manageable size that fits comfortably in your hand.
2. Locate your current position on the map and place your thumb directly next to it.
3. As you move from one point to another, keep your thumb stationary on the original location.
4. Use your thumb as a reference point to determine your new location relative to the previous one.

Note: This technique helps prevent confusion and keeps track of movement without constantly searching for your position on the map.

Purpose: The coordinate scale and protractor (a clear plastic tool) is used to measure small distances inside grid squares and determine exact coordinates.

Steps to Use the Tool:
1. Align the protractor: Place the protractor over the map so that its edge aligns with the grid lines.
2. Measure distance: Use the scale on the protractor to measure precise distances within a grid square.
3. Determine angles: The protractor can also be used to measure angles between two points for more accurate location determination.

Note: If you have GTA 5-2-12 (a military training aid), it provides exact coordinate scales and eliminates the need for estimating positions within grid squares.

The GEOREF system is a worldwide position reference system used primarily by the U.S. Air Force and can be used with any map or chart that has latitude and longitude printed on it. Instructions for using GEOREF are found in blue text in the margin of aeronautical charts.

Steps to Use GEOREF:
1. Identify the north-south (longitudinal) zone, which is divided into 24 zones, each 15° wide, lettered A through Z (excluding I and O). The first letter of any GEOREF coordinate identifies this zone.
2. Identify the east-west (latitudinal) band, which is divided into 12 bands, each 15° wide, lettered A through M (excluding I), starting from the south pole. The second letter of any GEOREF coordinate identifies this band.
3. Divide each 15° quadrangle into smaller 1° quadrangles by dividing it into 15 north-south zones and 15 east-west bands, both lettered A through Q (excluding I and O). The third and fourth letters identify these subdivisions.
4. Further divide the 1° quadrangles into 3,600 1” quadrangles using numbers from 0 to 59 for both north-south and east-west divisions. This is denoted by four letters followed by four numbers.
5. For even greater precision, each 1” quadrangle can be divided into 10 smaller subdivisions (0.1”), requiring six numbers in the GEOREF coordinate.

Important Rule: Always follow the rule READ RIGHT AND UP when interpreting coordinates.

Procedure:

1. Select two or three prominent, widely spaced features that are visible on the ground and marked on the map.
2. Using a compass, take a magnetic bearing to the first feature.
3. Convert the magnetic bearing to a grid bearing using the appropriate conversion method (e.g., based on local declination).
4. Convert the grid bearing to a back bearing, and plot this with a thin line from the selected feature on the map.
5. Repeat steps 2–4 for each additional feature.
6. The intersection of the plotted back bearings indicates your position; if they form a small triangle, your location is at the centre of the triangle.
7. Confirm the position using other ground and map details to ensure accuracy.

Procedure:

1. Label the index map: After all photos have been plotted on the map or overlay, write sufficient information to identify the mission or sortie associated with each photo.
- Include any relevant details such as date, time, location, or other identifying markers.

2. Use different colors for multiple sorties:
- If more than one sortie is plotted on a single map or overlay, use a distinct color for each to differentiate them clearly.

3. Ensure clarity and readability: Make sure the annotations are legible and do not obscure important features of the map or overlay.

Notes:
• This step ensures that users can quickly identify which photos correspond to specific missions or sorties.
• Color-coding improves visual distinction, especially when multiple sorties are plotted on one map.

Procedure:

1. Check the date the map was produced or last revised.
2. Consider how long ago it was made, as significant changes may have occurred:
- Towns and cities may have grown.
- Roads, railways, and other infrastructure may have been added or removed.
- Forests may have expanded or been cut down.
3. Understand that maps are only reliable for main physical features of the land (e.g., mountains, rivers, coastlines), as these can also change over time:
- Coastlines may erode.
- Rivers may shift their courses.
4. Use this information to judge how much trust you can place in the map's accuracy for navigation or planning purposes.

To calculate the scale of a photograph using the focal length and flight altitude method, follow these steps:

1. Check Marginal Information: Verify that the marginal information on the photograph includes both the focal length and the flight altitude.
2. Use Formula: Apply the formula provided in Figure 8-9 to compute the scale of the photo based on these values.
3. Adjust for Ground Elevation: If the ground elevation is at sea level, set the variable “h” (ground elevation) to zero and use the simplified formula shown in Figure 8-10.

Important Notes:
• This method is used when the photo includes specific technical data such as focal length and flight altitude.
• The formula accounts for variations in ground elevation, which affects the scale of the photograph.

Procedure:

1. Determine the original azimuth (e.g., 223[o]).
2. Subtract 180[o] from the original azimuth to calculate the back azimuth.
- Example: If the original azimuth is 223[o], subtract 180[o] to get a back azimuth of 43[o].
3. If the original azimuth is less than 180[o], add 180[o] instead of subtracting it.
- Example: If the original azimuth is 40[o], add 180[o] to get a back azimuth of 220[o].

Details:
• A back azimuth points in the exact opposite direction from the original azimuth.
• Use extreme care when performing these calculations, as even small mathematical errors can lead to significant navigational mistakes.
• This is essential for returning to your starting point after traveling along a specific azimuth.

Procedure:

1. Understand the purpose of aerial photographs and maps:
- An aerial photograph provides a current pictorial view of the ground that no map can equal.
- A topographic map may be obsolete because it was compiled many years ago, while an aerial photograph shows any changes that have taken place since the map was made.

2. Recognize advantages of aerial photographs over maps:
- They are more readily obtained and may be in the hands of the user within a few hours after they are taken, whereas a map may take months to prepare.
- Aerial photographs can be made for places that are inaccessible to ground soldiers.
- They show military features that do not appear on maps.
- They provide a day-to-day comparison of selected areas, permitting evaluations to be made of enemy activity.
- They provide a permanent and objective record of the day-to-day changes with the area.

3. Understand disadvantages of aerial photographs compared to maps:
- Ground features are difficult to identify or interpret without symbols and are often obscured by other ground detail such as, for example, buildings in wooded areas.
- Position location and scale are only approximate.
- Detailed variations in the terrain features are not readily apparent without overlapping photography and a stereoscopic viewing instrument.
- Because of a lack of contrasting colors and tone, a photograph is difficult to use in poor light.
- It lacks marginal data.
- It requires more training to interpret than a map.

4. Use both aerial photographs and maps together:
- More information can be gained by using the two together than by using either alone.

The numbered sections of all forms are the same. For example: In block 1, if you are in CONUS, enter “AOD;” if you are overseas, enter “AO4.” In block 2, use one of the following codes for your location:

|LOCATION |CODE|
|---|---|
|Europe|CS7|
|Hawaii|HM9|
|Korea|WM4|
|Alaska|WC1|
|Panama|HMJ|
|CONUS|HM8|

Your supply section will help you complete the rest of the form.

Purpose: To determine the back azimuth (opposite direction) of a given azimuth in degrees or mils.

Materials Required: Given azimuths (in degrees or mils).

### Performance Steps:

1. Understand Back Azimuths:
- A back azimuth is the opposite direction of an azimuth, used to return from point B to point A on a map.

2. Compute in Degrees:
- If the original azimuth is less than 180°, add 180° to find the back azimuth.
- If the original azimuth is greater than or equal to 180°, subtract 180° from it to find the back azimuth.

3. Compute in Mils:
- If the original azimuth is less than 3200 mils, add 3200 mils to find the back azimuth.
- If the original azimuth is greater than or equal to 3200 mils, subtract 3200 mils from it to find the back azimuth.

### Example:
• Original Azimuth: 65° → Back Azimuth: 65° + 180° = 245°
• Original Azimuth: 1,150 mils → Back Azimuth: 1,150 + 3200 = 4,350 mils (or -1,150 mils)

### Notes:
• Ensure that the back azimuth is always in the correct direction for navigation.
• This procedure is essential for returning to a starting point using map and compass techniques.

Procedure:

Step 1: Line up the straight edge of a strip of paper with the beginning and ending points on the map.

Step 2: Mark the beginning and ending points on the straight edge of the paper.

Step 3: Place the starting point on the paper under the zero on the bar scale.

Step 4: Measure off 4,000 meters and place a new tick mark on the paper.

Step 5: Place the new tick mark under the zero on the bar scale.

Step 6: Determine if the end point falls within the bar scale.

• If it does:
- (a) Record the value on the scale of the end point.
- (b) Add 4,000 meters to this value to get the total difference.

• If it does not:
- (a) Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the end point falls within the bar.
- (b) Add 4,000 meters to the value you derived in step 6(a) for each time you performed step 4.

Procedure:

Step 1: Line up the straight edge of a strip of paper with the beginning point and the point where the road makes the first curve on the map.

Step 2: Mark on the straight edge of the paper the beginning and curve points.

Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2, each time using the point of the curve as the next beginning point, until you reach the end point.

Steps to Create a Map Overlay:

1. Orient the overlay material: Place the overlay over the area on the map that needs annotation. If possible, attach it to the edges of the map with tape.

2. Trace grid intersections: Use a straightedge to trace the grid intersections nearest the two opposite corners of the overlay and label them with their proper grid coordinates. These are called register marks and ensure accurate alignment of the overlay on the map.

3. Maintain accuracy: Ensure absolute precision when plotting these register marks, as even small errors can cause misalignment of the overlay.

4. Plot new detail:
- Use pencils or markers in standard colors that make a lasting mark without cutting the overlay (as per FM 101-5-1).
- Use standard topographic or military symbols where possible. If nonstandard symbols are used, they must be identified in a legend on the overlay.
- Plot positions first on the map and then trace them onto the overlay if needed.
- Only plot detail directly relevant to the report or orders being supplemented by the overlay.

5. Add new features: If you observe any topographic or cultural features not shown on the map (e.g., a new road, destroyed bridge), plot their positions as accurately as possible and mark them with standard symbols.

6. Check for visibility issues: If difficulty in seeing through the overlay material occurs while plotting or tracing detail, lift the overlay periodically to verify the orientation of information being added relative to the base map.

7. Record marginal information:
- Print this information as close to the lower right-hand corner as possible (see Figure 7-2).
- Include the following data:
- Title and Objective: Clearly state why the overlay was made, including specific location if applicable (e.g., “Route 146 road reconnaissance”).
- Time and Date: Provide the exact time and date the information was obtained to help receivers assess its reliability.
- Map Reference: Include the sheet name, sheet number, map series number, and scale. This helps readers obtain an identical map if needed.
- Author: Identify the author by name, rank, and organization, along with the date and time of preparation of the overlay.
- Legend: If nonstandard symbols are used, include a legend explaining their meaning.
- Security Classification: Ensure this corresponds to the highest classification level between the map and the information on the overlay. Include notes in both locations as shown in Figure 7-2.
- Additional Information: Add any other relevant details briefly.

Objective: Prepare an overlay for the operation indicated in the OPORD.

Steps:
1. Place registering marks in opposite corners of the overlay.
2. Mark information using standard military symbols.
3. Indicate enemy installations, equipment, or activities with either the color RED or with double-lined symbols.
4. Indicate future locations or coordinating detail with broken-line symbols.
5. Place symbols indicating size on a boundary to indicate the highest unit sharing the boundary.
6. Extend the axis-of-advance arrow from the LD (Line of Departure) to the objective.
7. Label the route-of-march arrows with a code name or unit designation.
8. Label the MSR (Main Supply Route) and assign a code name.
9. Ensure that the center of a unit's symbol corresponds to the coordinates of the unit.

Materials Required: Map board, map, marking pens, overlay paper, coordinate scale, unit SOP, and FM 101-5-1.

Standards: All military symbols must be used according to current FM guidelines. Enemy situation must be depicted in RED or with double lines. Control measures, command post location, maneuver elements, and reserves must all be included.

Procedure:

1. Before setting out on any journey through the bush, ensure you have a map of the area or create one as you go along.
2. A map is a plan of a section of country drawn to scale, with the scale generally shown at the foot of the map.
3. The map should show either TRUE North, MAGNETIC North, or both. If not marked, add this information:
- Show TRUE North as a strong line.
- Show MAGNETIC North as a dotted line.
- Mark each clearly so others using the map can distinguish them.
4. The map should show ground features such as rivers and mountain ranges in relation to one another, and may also show man-made features like buildings, roads, and railways.

Steps to Create an Aerial Photograph Overlay:

1. Orient the photograph: Since aerial photographs typically lack grid lines, use the borders of the photo as reference points for the overlay.

2. Trace linear features or reference marks: Use these in place of grid register marks to ensure proper alignment with the photograph.

3. Indicate marginal data position: Show on the overlay where the marginal information appears on the photograph, visible through the overlay.

4. Record marginal information:
- Include the following details as close to the lower right-hand corner of the overlay as possible (see Figure 7-3):
- North Arrow: Determine this by comparing with a map or using a compass/expedient direction finder. Use standard symbols for grid, magnetic, or true north.
- Title and Objective: Clearly state why the photo overlay was made, including specific location if applicable (e.g., “Route 146 road reconnaissance”).
- Time and Date: Provide the exact time and date the information was obtained to help receivers assess its reliability.
- Photo Reference: Include the photo number, mission number, flight date, and scale. This can be traced in its actual location on the photograph if needed.
- Scale: Compute the scale since it is not part of the marginal data on photographs.
- Map Reference: If available, reference a map sheet name, sheet number, series number, and scale for the area covered by the photo.
- Author: Identify the author by name, rank, and organization, along with the date and time of preparation of the overlay.
- Legend: Include only if nonstandard symbols are used to represent features on the overlay.
- Security Classification: Ensure this corresponds to the highest classification level between the photograph and the information on the overlay. Include notes in both locations as shown in Figure 7-3.
- Additional Information: Add any other relevant details briefly.

Objective: Outline and number each aerial photo's coverage area on a map for identification.

Steps:
1. Identify corners of the photo: Locate the exact point on the map corresponding to each corner of the aerial photo.
2. Use recognizable objects (if available): If a recognizable object, such as a house or road junction, is at one of the corners, use it as the reference point for that corner on the map.
3. Outline edges using identifiable features: If no recognizable objects are present at the corners, align two or more identifiable objects along each edge of the photo to determine its boundaries.
4. Mark intersection points: The points where these edges intersect represent the exact corners of the photo on the map.
5. Account for photo tilt: If the photo is not perfectly vertical, the outlined area may not be a perfect square or rectangle.
6. Draw the outline: After outlining all four sides, write the photo number inside the enclosed area. Ensure the number is placed in the same corner as it appears on the actual photo.

Procedure:

1. Determine average dimensions of photos: Calculate the average length and width of the area covered by each photo on the map.
- Multiply the average length of the photos by the denominator of the average scale of the photos, then multiply this result by the scale of the map to get the average length on the map.
- Repeat the same calculation for the width of the photos.

2. Construct a template: Cut a cardboard or other material template to match the calculated average dimensions obtained in step 1.

3. Index the map using the template:
- Select the general area on the map that corresponds to the first photo and align it with the photo.
- Place the template over this area and adjust it until it covers as much of the area as possible without exceeding its boundaries.
- Draw lines around the edges of the template on the map to outline the approximate coverage of the photo.

4. Repeat for all photos: Continue using the same template to index each subsequent photo, ensuring consistent placement and alignment.

Notes:
• This method is suitable when exact area coverage is not as critical as general location and approximate size.
• It is efficient for indexing a large number of aerial photographs.

A map is a graphic representation of a portion of the earth’s surface drawn to scale, as seen from above. It uses colors, symbols, and labels to represent features found on the ground. The ideal representation would be realized if every feature of the area being mapped could be shown in true shape. Obviously this is impossible, and an attempt to plot each feature true-to-scale would result in a product impossible to read even with the aid of a magnifying glass.

Purpose: To determine the grid azimuth (in degrees or mils) from point A to point B on a map using a protractor.

Materials Required: Standard 1:50,000 scale military map with two known points plotted, protractor, straightedge, and pencil.

### Performance Steps:

1. Understand Azimuths:
- An azimuth is the direction from one point to another on a map or ground, measured in degrees or mils clockwise from north.
- In degrees: 0° (or 360°) = North, 90° = East, 180° = South, 270° = West.
- In mils: 0 mils (or 6400 mils) = North, 1600 mils = East, 3200 mils = South, 4800 mils = West.

2. Use the Protractor:
- The Army uses two types of protractors: square (GTA 5-2-12) and semicircular.
- Square protractor has an inner degree scale and outer mil scale.
- Semicircular protractor may have both scales, with the outer row used for azimuths to the East and the inner row for azimuths to the West.

3. Plot Points on Map:
- Plot two points (A and B) on the map using a pencil.

4. Draw Azimuth Line:
- Use a straightedge to draw a straight line from point A to point B.

5. Align Protractor:
- Place the index of the protractor at the point where the azimuth line crosses a vertical (North-South) grid line on the map.

6. Read Azimuth:
- Ensure that the 0-degree or 0-mil mark is toward the top (North) of the map.
- Start reading from the 0-degree or 0-mil mark and move clockwise to where the azimuth line crosses the scale(s).
- Each tick mark on the degree scale = 1°, each tick mark on the mil scale = 20 mils.

7. Record Azimuth:
- Read the value at the point where the azimuth line intersects the protractor scale(s). Example: 65° or 1,150 mils.

8. Adjust for Semicircular Protractor:
- If using a semicircular protractor and point B is to the West of point A, reverse the protractor so that the 0-degree mark points toward the bottom (South) of the map.

### Notes:
• The line drawn between the two points must be long enough to cross the scale(s). If it’s too short, extend the line beyond point B until it crosses the scale(s).
• Ensure that the 0-degree or 0-mil mark is always aligned toward North on the map.

### Evaluation Measures:
• Determine the correct azimuth within ±1 degree or ±20 mils.

Steps to Determine Elevation:

1. Locate the point on the map that you want to determine the elevation for (it may already be plotted or given as an eight-digit coordinate).
2. Determine the contour interval of the map from the marginal information.
3. Find the index contour line nearest to the point for which the elevation is being sought.
4. Count the number of contour lines that must be crossed to go from the numbered line to the point, and note the direction to the point.
- If the point is on a contour line, its elevation is equal to that of the contour line.
- For points between contour lines:
- Points less than one-fourth of the distance between two lines are considered to have the same elevation as the nearest line.
- Points one-fourth to three-fourths of the distance from the lower line are considered to be at an elevation half the contour interval above the lower line.
5. Estimate the elevation of a hilltop: Add half the contour interval to the elevation of the highest contour line around the hill.
6. Estimate the elevation of a depression: Subtract half the contour interval from the elevation of the lowest contour line surrounding the depression.
7. If the map does not show sufficient detail, use supplementary contour lines, which are treated exactly like solid contour lines.

### Determine Grid Square Coordinates on a Military Map

Overview:
A military map uses vertical and horizontal lines to form grid squares, each representing 1,000 meters. These grid squares are numbered along the outside edge of the map. To locate a specific point within a grid square, additional digits can be added for greater precision.

### Steps:
1. Identify Grid Square:
- Look at the map and find the vertical (top to bottom) and horizontal (left to right) lines that form grid squares.
- Each grid square is 1,000 meters on each side and has a unique number.
- To determine your general location, read the numbers along the left and bottom edges of the map. For example, if you are in grid square 1181, that means you are within the area defined by vertical line 11 and horizontal line 81.

2. Determine Precision:
- A 4-digit coordinate (e.g., 1996) identifies a location to the nearest 1,000 meters.
- A 6-digit coordinate (e.g., 192961) identifies a location to the nearest 100 meters.

3. Refine Grid Square Location:
- To get more precise coordinates, imagine that each grid square is divided into smaller squares by adding 10 imaginary lines inside it (5 running north-south and 5 east-west), creating 100 smaller squares of 100 meters on each side.
- Estimate where the point lies within the grid square:
- If you are halfway between vertical line 11 and 12, add 5 to the first half, making it 115.
- If you are 3/10 of the way between horizontal line 81 and 82, add 3 to the second half, making it 813.
- Your final 6-digit coordinate would be 115813.

4. Use Coordinate Scale for Accuracy:
- The most accurate way to determine coordinates is by using a coordinate scale, protractor (GTA 5-2-12), or plotting scale.
- Ensure the correct scale is used (either 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 meters) depending on the map.

5. Place Coordinate Scale:
- Locate the grid square where your point of interest is located (e.g., point A).
- Align the coordinate scale so that its zeros are in the lower-left corner (southwest) of the grid square containing the point.
- Slide the scale to the right, keeping it aligned with the bottom horizontal grid line until the point is under the vertical (right-hand) scale.

6. Read Coordinates:
- The 100-meter mark on the bottom scale nearest to the vertical grid line gives the third digit of the coordinate.
- The 100-meter mark on the vertical scale nearest to the point gives the sixth digit of the coordinate.
- Combine these digits with the original grid square number for a full six-digit coordinate (e.g., 115813).

### Notes:
• Always ensure that you are using the correct scale and device (protractor or plotting scale) based on the map's scale.
• If you are exactly on a grid line, use 0 for the additional digit (e.g., if you're exactly on horizontal line 81, the second half of your coordinate is 810).

Purpose: To determine the road distance in miles, meters, or yards using a map.

### Performance Steps
1. Use this step to determine the road distance in miles, meters, or yards as appropriate.
2. If the total distance measured on the paper is less than or equal to 1 inch:
- Use steps 2a(3) and (4).
3. If the total distance measured on the paper is more than 1 inch:
- Use steps 2b(3) through (7).

### Evaluation Preparation
• Setup: In the field or classroom, give the Soldier a 1:50,000-scale military map, a strip of paper with a straight edge, and a pencil. On the map, plot a straight-line distance of 3,000 to 4,000 meters. Mark this distance points A and B. On a road or trail, plot a curved-line distance of 3,000 to 4,000 meters with at least two changes of direction. Mark this distance points C and D.
• Brief Soldier: Tell the Soldier to determine the straight-line distance between points A and B with no more than 5 percent error, and the curved-line distance between points C and D with no more than 10 percent error. The Soldier must either write down the correct answers or state them when asked by the scorer.

### Performance Measures
| Performance Measure | GO | NO GO |
|---------------------|----|-------|
| Identified the scale of the map. | —— | —— |
| Converted the straight-line map distance to miles, meters, or yards using the map's bar scale, with no more than 5 percent error. | —— | —— |
| Converted the road map distance to miles, meters, or yards using the map's bar scale, with no more than 10 percent error. | —— | —— |

### Evaluation Guidance
• Refer to chapter 1, paragraph 1-9e, (1) and (2).

Contour line spacing indicates slope steepness:
• Widely spaced contour lines indicate a gentle slope.
• Closely spaced contour lines indicate a steep slope.

Additional observations:
• If contour lines are widely spaced at the top of a hill, it indicates a flat hilltop.
• If contour lines are closely spaced near the top of a hill, it suggests a pointed or sharp hill.

These observations help in understanding terrain features and planning routes accordingly.

Objective: Determine your location on a map using a compass and known positions.

Steps:
1. Determine the G-M angle of the map you are using.
2. Locate two known positions on the ground and mark them on your map (A).
3. Using your compass, measure the magnetic azimuth to one of the known locations.
- If it is a westerly G-M angle, subtract the number of degrees in the G-M angle from your magnetic azimuth.
- If it is an easterly G-M angle, add the number of degrees in the G-M angle to your magnetic azimuth.
4. Change this grid azimuth to a back azimuth.
5. Place the protractor on the map, ensuring that the zero-degree indicators on the protractor point to the top of the map (North), and the index point is center of mass on this location.
6. Place a tick mark at the number of degrees you want to plot.
7. Remove the protractor from the map and draw a line on the map from this position on the grid back azimuth you found, in the direction of your unknown position.
8. Repeat steps 3 through 7 for a second (C) and third (D) known position.
9. Where these lines cross is your location.

Notes: The example map is not to scale. The example uses an easterly G-M angle of 10 degrees.

Procedure for Determining a Location on the Ground by Terrain Association

### Conditions:
• In the field during daylight, at an unknown location on the ground.
• Given a standard 1:50,000-scale military map of the area.
• Pencil and paper available.
• Coordinate scale and protractor provided.
• A known point on the ground is identified.

### Standards:
• Determine the six-digit coordinate of your location within 7 minutes with a 100-meter tolerance.

### Performance Steps:
1. Determine the type of terrain feature you are located on.
2. Identify the types of terrain features that surround your location.
3. Orient the map.
4. Determine the four cardinal directions (North, South, East, and West).
5. Determine your location:
- a. Relate the terrain features on the ground to those shown on the map.
- b. After identifying where the terrain features on the ground and those on the map coincide, use the coordinate scale and protractor to determine the coordinates of your location.

### Evaluation Preparation:
• Setup: Select a field site whose terrain features are shown on the map. Provide at the test site: a field table, a 1:50,000-scale military map of the area, pencil, paper, and a coordinate scale.
• Brief Soldier: Instruct the soldier that they must determine a six-digit coordinate of their location within 7 minutes. Tell them one of the cardinal directions (North, South, East, or West).

### Performance Measures:
|Performance Measure|GO|NO GO|
|---|---|---|
|Identified the type of terrain feature where you are located.|——|——|
|Identified the terrain features around your location.|——|——|
|Oriented the map.|——|——|
|Determined the remaining three cardinal directions.|——|——|
|Identified the same terrain features on the map.|——|——|
|Determined the six-digit grid coordinate of your own location (the point selected must be within 100 meters of your location).|——|——|

### Evaluation Guidance:
• Refer to chapter 1, paragraph 1-9e(1) and (2).

### References:
• Required: FM 3-25.26
• Related: STP 21-1-SMCT, 3-234, 071-329-1005

Determining Direction Using a Map

1. Understand map orientation: The top of the map is north, the right edge is east, the bottom is south, and the left edge is west.
2. Identify azimuths: The direction from one point to another (either on the map or on the ground) is called an azimuth.
3. Use a compass for accuracy: When traveling cross-country or at night, use a compass to maintain a straight line and avoid walking in circles.
4. Utilize steering points: During the day, use well-defined objects in your direction of travel as reference points (steering points) to help you stay on course.

Procedure:

1. Orient the photograph by inspection to match surrounding ground features.
2. Open a compass and place it flat on the photograph.
3. Rotate the compass until the north arrow aligns with the black fixed index line.
4. Draw a straight line along the edge of the compass on the photograph. This is the magnetic-north line.

Details:
• This method requires visual confirmation of ground features to ensure proper alignment.
• A compass must be used for accurate magnetic north orientation.

Shade (Tone or Texture) is another factor used to identify features on aerial photographs. Most aerial photography uses panchromatic film, which registers colors as shades of gray ranging from white to black. The tone depends on the texture of the feature: a paved highway has a smooth texture and produces an even tone, while a recently plowed field or marsh has a rough texture and results in a grainy tone. Similar features may have different tones depending on sunlight reflection. For example, a river appears light when reflecting sunlight directly toward the camera and dark otherwise.

Surrounding Objects can help identify features that are not easily recognized by themselves. For example, large buildings located beside railroads or railroad sidings are usually factories or warehouses. Schools can be identified by the presence of baseball or football fields. It may be difficult to distinguish between a water tower next to a railroad station and a silo next to a barn unless surrounding objects such as railroad tracks or cultivated fields are considered.

### Identify Major Terrain Features on a Map

Major terrain features include hills, saddles, valleys, ridges, and depressions.

#### Hill
• A hill is an area of high ground. From a hilltop, the ground slopes down in all directions.
• On a map, a hill is shown by contour lines forming concentric circles.
• The inside of the smallest closed circle represents the hilltop.

#### Saddle
• A saddle is a dip or low point between two areas of higher ground. It may be simply a dip along a level ridge crest.
• If you are in a saddle, there is high ground in two opposite directions and lower ground in the other two directions.
• On a map, a saddle is normally represented as an hourglass shape.

#### Valley
• A valley is a stretched-out groove in the land, usually formed by streams or rivers.
• Three sides of a valley have high ground, while the fourth direction has low ground.
• Water flows from higher to lower ground. The closed end of the contour line (U or V) always points upstream or toward high ground.

#### Ridge
• A ridge is a sloping line of high ground. If you are on the centerline, there is low ground in three directions and high ground in one direction.
• When crossing a ridge at right angles, you climb steeply to the crest and then descend steeply to the base.
• On a map, contour lines forming a ridge tend to be U-shaped or V-shaped, with the closed end pointing away from high ground.

#### Depression
• A depression is a low point in the ground or a sinkhole. It may be surrounded by higher ground on all sides or simply a hole in the ground.
• On maps, depressions are represented by closed contour lines that have tick marks pointing toward low ground.

Procedure:

1. Obtain materials: Use a 1:50,000-scale military map, paper, two pencils, and a grid coordinate scale.
2. Prepare the map: Circle one example of each major terrain feature (e.g., hill, ridge, valley, saddle, depression) and one example of each minor terrain feature (e.g., draw, spur, cliff) on the map.
3. Randomly number the circled terrain features 1 through 8.
4. Provide materials: Give each Soldier duplicate sets of the map, paper, and two pencils.
5. Instruct Soldiers: Tell them to number their paper 1 through 8 and write down the terrain feature that corresponds to each circled area on the map.
6. Demonstrate identification: During instruction, use the fist and hand to demonstrate how to identify terrain features and what they would look like on the ground.
7. Evaluate performance: Ensure Soldiers correctly identify all major and minor terrain features based on their written responses.

Notes:
• Major terrain features include hills, ridges, valleys, saddles, and depressions.
• Minor terrain features include draws, spurs, and cliffs.
• Use the grid coordinate scale to locate points accurately if needed.

### Identify Map Symbols Representing Physical Features

Steps:
1. Identify each object by its shape on the map. For example:
- A black, solid square represents a building or a house.
- A round or irregular blue item is a lake or pond.
2. Use logic and color to identify each map feature. For example:
- Blue represents water.
- If you see a symbol that is blue and has clumps of grass, this would be a swamp.
3. Understand the size of the symbol:
- The size of the symbol shows the relative size of the object.
- Most symbols are enlarged 6 to 10 times so that you can see them under dim light.
4. Use the legend:
- The legend should identify most of the symbols used on the map.

To identify map symbols for orienteering control points:

1. Refer to Figure E-9 in FM 3-25.26, which contains typical topographic and cultural symbols used for orienteering.
2. The map cutouts are selected from DMA maps and include a variety of features such as trails, fences, roads, streams, and other landmarks.
3. Use these symbols to locate and identify control points during orienteering exercises.

Note: These symbols are essential for accurate navigation and should be studied thoroughly before field use.

Procedure:

1. Top of the map sheet:
- Top left corner: Identify the geographic location covered by the map and its scale.
- Top center: Identify the name of the map sheet.
- Top right corner: Identify the map edition, series, and sheet number.
2. Bottom of the map sheet:
- Lower left corner: Locate the legend, agency that prepared the map, sheet number, and sheet name.
- Bottom center: Identify bar scales in meters, yards, miles, and nautical miles; contour interval; grid reference box; declination diagram; and G-M angle (mils or degrees).
- Lower right corner: Locate the elevation guide, adjoining map sheet diagram, and boundaries box showing any boundaries on the map.

Notes:
• This procedure is essential for understanding the context and scale of a topographic map.
• Use this information to orient yourself and plan routes effectively.

### Identify Minor Terrain Features on a Map

Minor terrain features include draws, spurs, and cliffs.

#### Draw
• A draw is a stream course that is less developed than a valley. There is essentially no level ground within its confines.
• If you are standing in a draw, the ground slopes upward in three directions and downward in one direction.
• On maps, draws are represented by U-shaped or V-shaped contour lines, with the closed end pointing toward high ground.

#### spur
• A spur is a short, continuous sloping line of higher ground that juts out from the side of a ridge. It is often formed by two roughly parallel streams cutting down the side of a ridge.
• The ground slopes down in three directions and up in one direction.
• On maps, spurs are represented by U or V-shaped contour lines, with the closed end pointing away from high ground.

#### Cliff
• A cliff is a vertical or near-vertical feature; it represents an abrupt change of the land.
• When a slope is so steep that the contour lines converge into one “carrying” contour, this last contour line has tick marks pointing toward low ground.
• Cliffs are also shown by contour lines very close together, and in some cases, touching each other.

Procedure:

1. Identify symbols by shape:
- A black, solid square represents a building or house.
- A round or irregular blue item is a lake or pond.
2. Use logic and color to identify features:
- Blue represents water. If you see a symbol that is blue with clumps of grass, this would be a swamp.
3. Interpret the size of symbols:
- Symbols are typically enlarged 6 to 10 times for visibility under dim light.
4. Use the legend:
- The legend should identify most map symbols and features.

Notes:
• This procedure is essential for navigation using topographic maps.
• Ensure that you refer to the legend when identifying unclear symbols.

Procedure for Identifying Points of Departure (PDs):

• PDs are typically shown along the line of departure (LD) for night attacks.
• They appear similar to checkpoints but include the letters 'PD' followed by a letter or number.
• The arrow on the map points downward from its location.

Purpose: To correctly identify and mark PDs on a map overlay for operational planning.

### Identify Terrain Features on a Map

#### Conditions:
Given a standard 1:50,000-scale military map.

#### Standards:
Identify the five major and three minor features on the map.

### Performance Steps:
1. Identify terrain features in table 071-329-1001-01 the same way on all maps, regardless of the contour interval. Keep in mind that a hill in the Rocky Mountains will be much bigger than the one in South Florida.

2. You must be able to recognize all the terrain features to locate a point on the ground or to navigate from one point to another (figures 071-329-1001-1 through 071-329-1001-10).

### Figures:
• Figure 071-329-1001-1: Using a fist to explain terrain features.
• Figure 071-329-1001-2: Using a hand to explain terrain features.
• Figure 071-329-1001-3: A hill.
• Figure 071-329-1001-4: A ridge.
• Figure 071-329-1001-5: A valley.
• Figure 071-329-1001-6: A saddle.
• Figure 071-329-1001-7: A depression.
• Figure 071-329-1001-8: A draw.
• Figure 071-329-1001-9: A spur.
• Figure 071-329-1001-10: A cliff.

### Table:
• Table 071-329-1001-1: Major and minor terrain features (see figures for visual reference).

### Evaluation Preparation:
• Setup: Use a 1:50,000-scale military map. Circle one example of each major terrain feature and one example of each minor terrain feature. Randomly number the circled terrain features 1 through 8. Provide each Soldier with duplicate sets of the map, paper, and two pencils.
• Brief Soldier: Tell the Soldier to number the paper 1 through 8. Tell the Soldier to write down the terrain feature that corresponds to each circled area on the map.

### Instruction:
During instruction, demonstrate to the Soldiers how they can learn terrain features using the fist and hand. Use these to show what each terrain feature would look like on the ground.

Procedure:

1. Planimetric Map: Identify a planimetric map by its lack of relief features (no contour lines). It only shows horizontal positions of features.
2. Topographic Map: Recognize a topographic map by the inclusion of contour lines that represent elevation and terrain relief. These maps are used for detailed land navigation.
3. Photomap: Identify a photomap as a reproduction of an aerial photograph with added grid lines, marginal data, place names, route numbers, elevations, boundaries, scale, and direction.
4. Joint Operations Graphic (JOG): Recognize JOG maps by their format based on 1:250,000 medium-scale topographic maps but with additional information for joint air-ground operations. Look for the designation in the lower margin as either 'joint operations graphic (air)' or 'joint operations graphic (ground)'.
5. Photomosaic: Identify a photomosaic as an assembly of aerial photographs used when time does not permit detailed map compilation.
6. Terrain Model: Recognize a terrain model as a scale model showing features, especially useful for visualizing terrain for planning or briefing purposes.
7. Military City Map: Identify this by its focus on urban details such as streets, street names, buildings, and other elements important to military operations in cities. These are typically at scales of 1:12,550 or smaller.
8. Special Maps: Recognize these maps based on their purpose (e.g., trafficability, communications, assault) and scale (usually between 1:1,000,000 and 1:100,000). They provide specialized information not found on standard maps.

To identify types of slopes on a map, follow these steps:

1. Understand the concept of slope: The rate of rise or fall of a terrain feature is known as its slope. This affects movement speed for equipment and personnel.
2. Analyze contour lines:
- Gentle Slope: Contour lines are evenly spaced and wide apart (Figure 10-6). A uniform, gentle slope allows the defender to use grazing fire, while the attacking force has to climb a slight incline.
- Steep Slope: Contour lines are evenly spaced but close together (Figure 10-7). A uniform, steep slope also allows the defender to use grazing fire, but the attacking force must negotiate a steep incline.
- Concave Slope: Contour lines are closely spaced at the top and widely spaced at the bottom (Figure 10-8). The defender at the top can observe the entire slope but cannot use grazing fire. The attacker has no cover from observation and faces increasing difficulty as they climb.
- Convex Slope: Contour lines are widely spaced at the top and closely spaced at the bottom (Figure 10-9). The defender at the top can obtain a small distance of grazing fire but cannot observe most of the slope. The attacker has concealment on most of the slope and an easier climb as they near the top.
3. Use visual aids: Refer to figures such as Figure 10-6 (gentle), Figure 10-7 (steep), Figure 10-8 (concave), and Figure 10-9 (convex) for visual representation of each slope type.

When using foreign maps, examine the hydrographic features for the following characteristics:

1. Hydrography Symbols: Look for blue lines and areas that depict streams, rivers, lakes, and seas. These are generally consistent with NGA (Naval Mapping Agency) usage.

2. Limitations of Foreign Maps: Be aware that foreign maps may not distinguish between perennial and intermittent streams. This can affect the accuracy of your navigation based on water sources.

3. Map Reliability: If the map appears crude, has unusually old compilation dates, or shows discrepancies between mapped and actual terrain, consider its reliability for accurate navigation.

To identify and interpret the adjoining sheets diagram on a military map:

1. Locate the adjoining sheets diagram, which is found in the lower or right margin of all maps at standard scales.
2. The diagram illustrates the adjacent map sheets that surround the current sheet.
3. On maps at 1:100,000 and larger scales and at 1:1,000,000 scale, the diagram is called the index to adjoining sheets.
4. It consists of as many rectangles representing adjoining sheets as are necessary to surround the rectangle that represents the sheet under consideration. The diagram usually contains nine rectangles, but the number may vary depending on the locations of the adjoining sheets.
5. All represented sheets are identified by their sheet numbers.
6. Sheets of an adjoining series, whether published or planned, that are at the same scale are represented by dashed lines.
7. The series number of the adjoining series is indicated along the appropriate side of the division line between the series.

Note: This diagram helps users locate adjacent maps for navigation and planning purposes.

To identify and interpret bar scales on a military map:

1. Locate the bar scales, which are located in the center of the lower margin.
2. They are rulers used to convert map distance to ground distance.
3. Maps have three or more bar scales, each in a different unit of measure (e.g., kilometers, miles, nautical miles).
4. Care should be exercised when using the scales, especially in the selection of the unit of measure that is needed.

Note: Using the correct bar scale ensures accurate distance measurements on the map.

To identify and interpret contour interval note on a military map:

1. Locate the contour interval note, which is found in the center of the lower margin normally below the bar scales.
2. It states the vertical distance between adjacent contour lines of the map.
3. When supplementary contours are used, the interval is indicated.
4. In recent edition maps, the contour interval is given in meters instead of feet.

Note: The contour interval note helps in understanding the terrain's vertical relief and planning routes accordingly.

To identify and interpret the index to boundaries on a military map:

1. Locate the index to boundaries diagram, which appears in the lower or right margin of all sheets.
2. This diagram, which is a miniature of the map, shows the boundaries that occur within the map area such as county lines and state boundaries.

Note: The index to boundaries helps users understand the administrative divisions and jurisdictional areas covered by the map.

Procedure:

1. Review the Glossary: Locate the glossary in the map margins, which explains technical terms or translates foreign language terms.
2. Check Classification Notes: Look for security classification notes in the upper and lower margins of maps that require such information.
3. Locate Protractor Scale: Identify the protractor scale in the upper margin if present; it is used to determine magnetic-grid declination for orienting the map with a lensatic compass.
4. Examine Coverage Diagram: On maps at scales of 1:100,000 and larger, locate the coverage diagram in the lower or right margin. It provides information on how the map was made, photography dates, and source reliability. On 1:250,000 scale maps, look for a reliability diagram instead.
5. Read Special Notes: Check the lower right margin for special notes that provide general information about the mapped area (e.g., red-light readability).
6. Review User’s Note: Locate the user’s note in the lower right-hand margin and follow instructions to report map errors or omissions by marking them and forwarding the map to the specified agency.
7. Identify Stock Number: Find the stock number identification in the margins of maps published by NGA. It consists of the words “STOCK NO” followed by a unique designation including series, sheet, and edition numbers. The format is as follows:
- First 5 units: Series number (use 'X' if less than 5 units)
- Next component: Sheet number (converted to Arabic numerals if Roman numerals are used)
- Last 2 units: Edition number (prepend a zero if less than 10; use '01' if unknown)
- Asterisks may be placed between sheet and edition numbers to ensure at least 11 units in the stock number.
8. Use Conversion Graph: Locate the conversion graph in the right margin, which helps convert different units of measure used on the map.

Purpose: Understand the standard map symbols used in orienteering to navigate effectively.

Procedure:
1. Recognize Topographic Symbols: Identify natural features such as hills, valleys, ridges, and depressions using standardized topographic symbols found on military maps.
2. Identify Cultural Symbols: Locate man-made features like roads, trails, fences, buildings, and water sources using cultural map symbols.
3. Refer to Map Legends: Use the legend or marginal information provided with the map to interpret unfamiliar symbols.
4. Use Symbol Consistency: Ensure that the same symbol is interpreted consistently across different maps for accuracy in navigation.
5. Practice Recognition: Regularly study and practice identifying map symbols from DMA (Defense Mapping Agency) maps, as these are commonly used in orienteering control points.

Notes:
• Map symbols may vary slightly depending on the scale or type of map being used.
• Always cross-reference with terrain features visible on the ground to confirm symbol interpretation.

To identify and interpret projection note on a military map:

1. Locate the projection note, which is located in the center of the lower margin.
2. The projection system is the framework of the map. For military maps, this framework is of the conformal type; that is, small areas of the surface of the earth retain their true shapes on the projection; measured angles closely approximate true values; and the scale factor is the same in all directions from a point.
3. Between 80 degrees south and 84 degrees north, maps at scales larger than 1:500,000 are based on the transverse Mercator projection. The note reads TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION.
4. Between 80 degrees south and 84 degrees north, maps at 1:1,000,000 scale and smaller are based on standard parallels of the lambert conformal conic projection. The note reads, for example, LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC PROJECTIONS 36 DEGREES 40’ N AND 39 DEGREES 20’ N.
5. Maps of the polar regions (south of 80 degrees south and north of 84 degrees north) at 1:1,000,000 and larger scales are based on the polar stereographic projection. The note reads POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.

Note: The projection note is crucial for understanding how the map represents the earth's surface and for accurate navigation.

Procedure:

1. Study the map legend to identify symbols representing terrain features, man-made structures, and other elements.
2. Recognize common symbols such as contour lines, roads, rivers, buildings, and vegetation.
3. Use the legend to interpret the meaning of each symbol on the map.
4. Pay attention to the scale and orientation indicators (north arrow) for accurate navigation.
5. Note any special notations or abbreviations used in the legend that may be relevant to your mission.

Details:
• The legend is typically located in the lower right corner of the map.
• Symbols can vary depending on the map's purpose and scale.
• Understanding symbols is crucial for accurate interpretation of terrain and navigation.

Purpose: To understand how to interpret and use the British grid system when it appears on military maps.

Steps:
1. Recognize that British grids are still shown in some areas of the world, but they are being phased out in favor of the UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) grid system.
2. Understand that the British grid is a local coordinate system used on maps and charts specific to certain regions.
3. If you encounter a map with a British grid:
- Use the grid lines and reference numbers provided in the marginal information of the map sheet to determine coordinates.
4. Be aware that the British grid system will eventually be replaced by UTM, so it is important to learn both systems for compatibility with international operations.

Notes:
• The British grid may appear on maps from older editions or in regions where transition has not yet been completed.

To interpret obstruction elevations on topographic maps:

1. Locate obstructions to air navigation on the map.
2. Note that the top of each obstruction is identified by its elevation above sea level and its elevation above ground level.
3. Use this information for safe flight planning or land navigation near such obstructions.

When working with foreign maps, be aware of the following regarding scale and grid systems:

1. Common scales found on foreign maps include: 1:25,000, 1:63,360, 1:63,600, 1:75,000, and 1:100,000.
2. Many large-scale topographic maps are overprinted with 1,000-meter grid squares, which may differ from NGA standards.
3. Your standard 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 grid coordinate scales may not work on foreign maps due to differences in scale and grid systems.
4. You must learn to estimate grid coordinates manually when using foreign maps with unfamiliar grid systems.

Tip: Always verify the map's scale and grid system before relying on it for navigation or planning.

Objective: Understand terrain features by analyzing contour lines.

Procedure:
1. Study the contour lines on a map to determine the layout of the terrain and identify potential routes.
2. Identify ridgelines, which are lines of high ground with changes in elevation along their top and low ground on all sides.
3. Recognize hilltops and saddles along ridgelines:
- Hilltops have lower ground in all directions from the top.
- Saddles have lower ground in two directions and high ground in the opposite two directions.
- Contour lines of saddles form a half-hourglass shape.
4. Identify ridges that extend from ridgelines:
- Ridges have lower ground in three directions and higher ground in one direction.
- The closed ends of the U’s formed by contour lines point away from higher ground.
5. Locate valleys, which slope downward in a specific direction (e.g., east to west), with the U of the contour line pointing toward higher ground.
6. Identify depressions where there is higher ground in all directions from the bottom of the depression.
7. Recognize spurs extending from ridgelines:
- Spurs have lower ground in three directions and higher ground in one direction, similar to ridges.
- The U’s formed by contour lines point away from higher ground.
8. Identify draws, which are like valleys but with higher ground in three directions and lower ground in one direction.
- Contour line U’s and V’s point toward higher ground.
9. Look for cliffs or nearly vertical slopes, indicated by contour lines that are touching or almost touching with ticks showing the steepness.
10. Identify cuts and fills on roads:
- Breaks in contour lines indicate cuts (lowering of terrain).
- Ticks pointing away from the road bed indicate fills (raising of terrain).

When interpreting terrain relief on foreign maps, consider the following:

1. Contour Line Usage: Most foreign maps use contour lines to represent terrain relief, similar to NGA maps.

2. Variability in Contour Intervals: The contour intervals used can vary significantly between different foreign maps, ranging from 5 meters to 100 meters.

3. Impact on Navigation: Due to the variability in contour intervals, it is important to be aware of how this might affect your interpretation of elevation changes and terrain features.

4. Map Reliability: If a map has inconsistent or unusually large contour intervals, its reliability for accurate navigation may be compromised.

When interpreting vegetation on foreign maps, consider the following:

1. Vegetation Classification: Foreign maps often use different classification systems and symbols for vegetation compared to NGA maps.

2. Color Usage: Green is typically used to represent vegetation, but blue and black may also be used in some cases.

3. Detail Level: Many foreign maps provide detailed information about specific types of vegetation present, not just general vegetated areas.

4. Variability: Symbols for different types of vegetation can vary significantly from one foreign map to another, so it is important to familiarize yourself with the symbols used on the particular map you are using.

Procedure:

1. Avoid using normal pacing systems due to the sliding capacity of skis, which makes it inaccurate or useless on steep slopes.
2. Use pacing on snowshoes only as an emergency measure, noting that individuals on snowshoes take shorter paces than on foot.
3. The recommended method for accurate ground measurement is:
- A piece of line or field wire (preferably 50 meters long/50 yards) used by two navigators.

To ensure success in land navigation, it is essential to know your initial location before starting any movement in the field. If this is not established, all subsequent actions are based on uncertainty.

Steps to Determine Initial Location:
1. Refer to the last known position if available.
2. Use grid coordinates and terrain association to identify your current location.
3. Locate and orient your position on both the map and ground for accuracy.

Importance: Establishing a clear initial location is critical because it provides a reference point from which all subsequent navigation decisions can be made.

Procedure:

To ensure accurate navigation using checkpoints, follow these steps:

1. Determine Distance: Estimate or measure the distance between each checkpoint on your route. This is critical to avoid navigational errors.
2. Use Map References: Refer to figure 071-329-1006-4 for guidance in checking distances between checkpoints.
3. Record Distances:
- From the starting point to the saddle: 500 meters.
- From the saddle to the stream: 800 meters.
- From the stream to the bend in the stream: 500 meters.
- From the bend in the stream to the road: 300 meters.
- From the road to the far saddle: 1,000 meters.
4. Trust Measured Distances: Once distances are estimated or measured, trust these distances as you move from one checkpoint to another.

Procedure:

To navigate effectively using linear features, follow these steps:

1. Select Linear Features: Choose checkpoints that are linear features such as hardtop roads, railroads, power lines, perennial streams (solid blue lines on maps), rivers, ridges, and valleys. These features are reliable because they cannot be missed and cross your corridor or axis regardless of your position.

2. Avoid Inaccurate Features: Do not use light-duty roads, trails, or wood lines as checkpoints since these may not be permanent or visible on the map.

3. Use Map References: Refer to figure 071-329-1006-03 for guidance in selecting and using checkpoints.

4. Follow a Sequence of Checkpoints:
- Start with a saddle (e.g., Hill 241) to align yourself on the right valley.
- Move along the valley until you reach a stream.
- Follow the stream until you encounter its bend, then turn right.
- Continue to a road in the valley (the ridge crossing on the road on the 12 grid line serves as a limiting feature).
- Proceed up to the far saddle and finally head right toward your objective (B).

Procedure:

When linear features are not available, use elevation changes to navigate:

1. Identify Elevation Features: Look for hills, depressions, small ridges, or valleys that indicate a change in elevation.
2. Use Contour Lines: During the day, look for one contour line of change; at night, look for two. Regardless of the contour interval on the map, you will be able to spot a change in elevation while moving on foot.
3. Confirm Position: Use these elevation changes as checkpoints to confirm your position and direction during navigation.

Procedure:

1. The compass may swing off the azimuth determined but should pick up a constant deviation.
2. For example, if the azimuth to the steering mark was 75 degrees while you were away from the vehicle and shows 67 degrees when remounted, this is a deviation of minus 8 degrees.
3. Hold the heading at 67 degrees to compensate for the deviation.

Procedure:

1. Assign a navigation detail consisting of:
- One officer or noncommissioned officer.
- 1 to 2 men, all thoroughly experienced in navigation techniques.
2. Place the detail directly under the control of the unit commander.
3. Release the detail from carrying individual heavy loads and trailbreaking duties to ensure they can perform their duties properly.

If you know your starting point and have the azimuth to a desired objective along with the distance to it, you can determine your location using the polar plot method.

Steps:
1. Identify the starting point on the map or ground.
2. Determine the azimuth (direction) from the starting point to the desired objective.
3. Measure the distance from the starting point to the objective.
4. Plot this information on the map using a protractor and scale ruler to mark your location.

Notes: This method is useful when you have a clear reference point and can measure both distance and direction accurately.

Procedure:

1. Use known reference points: Identify landmarks or features at a known distance (e.g., a distant mountain, rock formation).
2. Compare with the horizon: Use the absence of trees and other obstructions to estimate how far away an object is based on its size relative to the skyline.
3. Account for visibility limitations: Be aware that distances in deserts may be underestimated due to lack of visual reference points.
4. Use pacing or timing: Count steps or time intervals to estimate distance traveled, especially when landmarks are not visible.

Notes:
• Desert environments can create a false sense of proximity due to the open terrain and clear visibility.
• Combine this method with other navigation techniques for better accuracy.

Procedure:

1. The navigation detail is responsible for:
- Accumulating necessary instruments and equipment.
- Keeping instruments and equipment serviceable.
- Taking and recording data for precise location at all times.
- Maintaining liaison with the unit commander.
- Supplying data to keep the column on course.

Procedure:

1. Use dead reckoning as the primary method of navigation when:
- In vast barren grounds.
- In wide forest areas with limited or no landmarks.
- Visibility is limited (e.g., due to snowfall or fog).
2. Dead reckoning involves determining position by applying direction and distance traveled from a last known location.

Procedure:

1. Use the following mechanized aids:
- Magnetic Compass Mounted in Vehicles:
- A magnetic compass has been developed for mounting in all vehicles.
- Odograph Ml:
- Automatically plots the course of a moving vehicle.
- Consists of three units: the compass, plotting unit, and powerpack.
- Originally designed for use in 1/4-ton trucks but can be used in other vehicles (e.g., track-laying vehicles and sleds) under winter conditions.
- Odograph M2:
- More accurate and convenient to use than the Ml.
- Utilizes a miniature gyro-compass for input of direction.
- If map coordinates of the starting point are set on the instrument, it provides true coordinates of any point along the course of travel.
- Rotary Wing Aircraft for Pathfinding:
- Assists in land navigation in bush country by providing a path.
- From a tactical perspective, less feasible due to potential exposure of troop movements.
- Troops can reveal their position to aircraft using colored smoke.
- Pilots can give location information via radio or dropped message.

### Shadow Stick Method

Steps:
1. Place a vertical stick in the ground.
2. Mark the tip of the shadow with a small object (e.g., a stone or piece of cardboard).
3. Wait approximately 15–30 minutes and mark the new position of the shadow’s tip.
4. Draw a straight line between the two marks. This line will run West to East.
5. Stand with your left foot on the first marker and your right foot on the second marker. You will now be facing North.

### Local Apparent Noon
To determine local apparent noon (when the sun is at its highest point in the sky), use one of the following methods:

#### Method 1: Using Sunrise and Sunset Times
• Determine sunrise and sunset times from mission orders or a reliable source.
• Calculate total daylight by subtracting sunrise time from sunset time.
• Divide the total daylight by 2 to find the midpoint.
• Add this midpoint to the sunrise time. The result is local apparent noon.

Example:
• Sunrise: 0630, Sunset: 1930 → Total daylight = 13 hours.
• Divide by 2: 6 hours 30 minutes.
• Add to sunrise: 0630 + 6h30m = Local Apparent Noon at 1300.

#### Method 2: Using the String Method
• Use a string or piece of cord to find two equidistant marks before and after estimated solar noon.
• The center point between these two marks represents local apparent noon.

### Pocket Navigator (WSVX.02.07d)
Materials Required:
• A small piece of cardboard or flat-surface material.
• A watch.
• A pen or pencil.
• A 1 to 2 inch pin or nail.

Instructions:
1. Use the cardboard as a base for your navigator.
2. Mark the center point on the cardboard and insert the pin or nail through it, allowing it to pivot freely.
3. Place the pin in the sun so that its shadow aligns with the mark on the cardboard.
4. Rotate the cardboard until the shadow is aligned with a known direction (e.g., North).
5. Use the watch to track time and adjust for solar noon if needed.

Steps to Calculate Additional Paces for Partial Distances:

1. Determine the total distance you need to travel, including both full and partial 100-meter segments.
2. Multiply the number of meters in the partial segment by your pace count per meter (e.g., 15 meters x 116 paces = 1,740).
3. Take only the first two digits from the result to determine how many additional paces are needed for that segment.

Example:
• To travel 715 meters: Use seven full 100-meter segments (7 x 116 = 812 paces), then take an additional 17 paces for the remaining 15 meters (from 1,740 → 17).

Procedure:

1. Identify tree stumps or fallen trees for comparison.
2. Observe the side of the tree facing the equator (south):
- This side will show more vigorous growth.
- The tree growth rings on this side will be more widely spaced.
3. Observe the side of the tree facing the poles (north):
- Growth is less vigorous here.
- Tree growth rings on this side will be closer together.
4. Use this information to determine direction based on the orientation of the tree relative to the equator and poles.

Notes:
• This method works best when multiple trees are available for comparison.
• It is most accurate in areas with consistent sunlight exposure and minimal wind interference.

Procedure:

1. Observe the slope of the terrain to determine if it is facing north or south.
2. Look for differences in vegetation and moisture patterns:
- In the northern hemisphere, north-facing slopes receive less sun than south-facing slopes.
- North-facing slopes are therefore cooler and damper.
3. In summer, look for patches of snow on north-facing slopes that retain snow longer than south-facing slopes.
4. In winter, observe that south-facing slopes lose their snow first and have a shallower ground snowpack compared to north-facing slopes.
5. Use these observations to determine the direction of north and south.

Notes:
• This method is most effective in mountainous or hilly terrain with distinct north- and south-facing slopes.
• It may not be reliable in areas with heavy cloud cover, strong winds, or extreme weather conditions.

Procedure:

1. Break the route down into smaller segments.
2. Determine the rough direction to follow using main points of direction such as North, Northeast, or East.
3. Before moving, note the location of the sun and the direction of north.
4. Locate changes of direction at the checkpoints chosen.

Procedure:

1. Obtain the total distance to be traveled and the approximate distance between checkpoints.
2. Plan to use the vehicle odometer to keep track of distance traveled.
3. Convert the map distance to ground distance by adding 20 percent for cross-country movement.

Steps to Determine Your Pace Count on Cross-Country Terrain:

1. Choose a route with uneven ground, such as crisscrossing terrain over hills and valleys.
2. Walk at least 600 meters of this terrain while counting your paces.
3. Calculate the average number of paces per 100 meters by dividing the total paces taken by 6 (since 600 meters = 6 x 100 meters).

Notes:
• On cross-country terrain, you typically take about 148 paces per 100 meters.
• This is due to the increased effort required when navigating over uneven or difficult ground.

Procedure:

1. Visualize a 100-meter distance on the ground.
2. For ranges up to 500 meters:
- Count the number of 100-meter increments between two objects you wish to measure.
3. For ranges beyond 500 meters:
- Select a point halfway to the object.
- Determine the number of 100-meter increments to this halfway point.
- Double that number to estimate the total range to the object.

Notes:
• This method is useful in tactical situations where precise measurement tools are not available.
• Practice with pacing after estimation to improve accuracy.

Procedure:

1. Observe the flash of an explosion or enemy fire.
2. Begin counting immediately from the moment you see the flash.
3. Count the seconds until you hear the sound (use a stopwatch if available, or use a steady count like one-thousand-one, one-thousand-two, etc.).
4. If counting exceeds 10 seconds, restart the count at one.
5. Multiply the number of seconds by 330 meters to estimate the range (FA uses 350 meters instead).

Notes:
• This method is effective for estimating distance to distant explosions or enemy fire.
• Accuracy depends on the observer’s ability to count accurately and consistently.

Steps to Maintain a Straight Line While Pacing:

1. Use aiming points during daylight navigation (e.g., landmarks or features on the map).
2. Use a compass for more accurate direction control.
3. Avoid walking in circles, especially at night, by keeping your path aligned with your intended direction.
4. Adjust your route if you encounter obstacles, and only calculate the straight-line distance when navigating around them.

Notes:
• At night, people tend to walk in a clockwise circle unless using navigation tools like compasses.
• Maintaining a straight line is essential for accurate pace counting and distance estimation.

Procedure:

1. Observe the sun's path: During the day, observe where the sun sets to determine the general direction of north.
2. Mark northerly direction: If you plan to move after dark, mark the northerly direction on your surroundings or with a reference point for nighttime navigation.

Objective: Prepare for effective night navigation using dead reckoning and other techniques.

Procedure:
1. During the planning phase, conduct a detailed analysis of the map to determine the type of terrain in which navigation will take place.
2. Predetermine azimuths and distances based on the map analysis for accurate navigation during nighttime operations.
3. Use multiple compasses for dead reckoning to ensure accuracy and redundancy.
4. The point man should be positioned just a few steps ahead of the navigator for easy control of the azimuth.
5. During night navigation, take smaller steps, as pace count differs from daytime due to reduced visibility.
6. Use a predetermined 100-meter pace course to establish an accurate pace count for nighttime use.
7. Consider using night vision devices (Appendix G) to enhance visibility and accuracy during navigation.

Objective: Navigate at night using celestial bodies when visibility is limited.

Procedure:
1. Use the stars for navigation if familiar with constellations and their positions (refer to Chapter 9, paragraph 9-5c).
2. If the moon is bright enough, use it as a substitute for the sun in the shadow-tip method:
- Observe the shadow cast by an object on the ground.
- The tip of the shadow points south (in the Northern Hemisphere) during the day and can be used similarly at night with the moon.
3. This technique is useful for determining the four cardinal directions when other methods are unavailable.

Procedure:

1. Train soldiers in both the 100-meter unit-of-measure method and flash-to-bang method.
2. After estimating a range using either technique:
- Have the soldier pace the actual distance to verify their estimate.
3. This practice helps soldiers understand the accuracy of their estimations.
4. Encourage regular training sessions to improve proficiency in both methods.

Notes:
• Pacing after estimation provides a more concrete understanding than simply being told the correct range.
• Regular practice is essential for developing and maintaining accurate range estimation skills.

To understand the role of topographic maps in orienteering:

1. Recognize that a topographic map is a graphic representation of selected man-made and natural features of a part of the earth’s surface plotted to a definite scale.
2. The distinguishing characteristic of a topographic map is the portrayal of the shape and elevation of the terrain by contour lines.
3. For orienteering within the United States, large-scale topographic maps are available from the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) Hydrographic Topographic Center.
4. The scale suitable for orienteering is 1:50,000.

Procedure:

1. Observe Animal Movement: Watch the movement patterns of desert animals such as pigeons or doves.
2. Track Water Sources: Note that these birds typically fly to and from water sources (oases) during specific times of day, especially in the evening.
3. Identify Flight Patterns: Observe heavier flight and louder wing flapping when returning from oases, indicating a direction toward or away from water.

Notes:
• This method is most effective at dusk or dawn when animals are active.
• Combine with other navigation methods for greater accuracy.
• Be aware that not all animals behave consistently in the same way.

Procedure:

1. Establish a Starting Point: Use known landmarks or coordinates to determine your initial position.
2. Record Bearings and Distances: Keep track of the direction (bearing) and distance traveled using a compass, map, and pacing techniques.
3. Estimate Time and Speed: Calculate how long it will take to reach your destination based on terrain conditions and pace.
4. Adjust for Errors: Regularly cross-check your estimated position with known landmarks or use resection when possible.

Notes:
• This method is essential in sandy or dune deserts where visual cues are limited.
• Use a map, compass, and GPS (if available) to improve accuracy.
• Be aware that errors can accumulate over time if not corrected regularly.

Procedure:

1. Plan Fire Placement: Use planned tracer fire or mortar/artillery concentrations to mark positions.
2. Create Visual Landmarks: During the day, use smoke; at night, use illumination to create visible markers.
3. Use for Reference Points: Units can use these fires as reference points for resection and navigation.
4. Maintain Coordination: Ensure all units are aware of fire locations and their purpose.

Notes:
• This method is most effective in open desert areas with good visibility.
• Coordinate with other units to avoid confusion or misinterpretation.
• Use this technique as a supplement to traditional map and compass navigation.

In situations where direct location methods are not feasible, indirect fire can be used to determine a reference point.

Steps:
1. Use smoke as an indicator of the point of impact of a round fired from a weapon or artillery piece.
2. Once the point of impact is identified, use it as a reference point on the map and ground.
3. From this reference point, measure distances and azimuths to other locations for navigation purposes.

Notes: This method requires access to indirect fire capabilities (e.g., artillery or smoke rounds) and should be used in conjunction with other location methods for accuracy.

Procedure:

1. Use maps and aerial photos alone during daylight if the terrain has enough distinctive features to serve as useful landmarks.
2. Use maps and aerial photos in conjunction with a compass, especially when:
- Terrain contains insufficient landmarks.
- Visibility is limited.
3. In most instances, utilizing the map and compass together will provide the surest land navigation in northern areas of operation.

Procedure:

1. Place Searchlights Strategically: Position two or more searchlights far apart behind the line of contact.
2. Ensure Concealment: Make sure the lights are concealed from enemy observation and beyond their artillery range.
3. Use for Resection: Units can use these lights to determine their location through resection.
4. Maintain a Schedule: Ensure that all units are aware of when the lights will be activated and deactivated.

Notes:
• This method is most effective in areas with limited visual cues or during night operations.
• Coordinate with other units to ensure synchronization and accuracy.
• Use this technique as a supplement to traditional map and compass navigation.

Procedure:

1. Place a Stick Vertically in the Ground: Ensure it is perfectly upright and stable.
2. Mark the Tip of the Shadow: Use a small object to mark the tip of the shadow cast by the stick at a specific time (e.g., noon).
3. Wait 15-30 Minutes: Allow the sun to move, causing the shadow to shift.
4. Draw a Line Between the Two Marks: This line will run east-west, with the first mark indicating west and the second mark indicating east.
5. Determine North/South: Stand with your back to the shadow tip (west) to face north.

Notes:
• This method is most effective during daylight hours when the sun is visible.
• Accuracy improves with longer intervals between measurements.
• Use this technique in conjunction with other methods for greater precision.

Procedure:

1. Use supplementary methods such as:
- Position of the sun during the day.
- North Star and Big Dipper at night (as described in FM 21-26).
2. Employ these methods in conjunction with normal navigation methods (maps and compass) where possible.

Procedure:

1. Observe Wind Patterns: Note the direction of prevailing winds in the desert during specific seasons.
2. Analyze Dune Orientation: Identify how wind has shaped sand dunes, which typically align with the direction of the wind.
3. Determine Cardinal Directions: Use the alignment of dunes to estimate north, south, east, and west.

Notes:
• This method is most effective in areas where dune patterns are clearly defined by consistent winds.
• Combine this technique with other methods (e.g., sun shadow tip or star navigation) for accuracy.
• Wind direction can vary depending on the time of day and season, so cross-check observations.

Procedure:

1. Align the pocket navigator: Hold the navigator so that the shadow tip is aligned with a previously plotted point at the current time (e.g., if it's 0900, align the shadow tip with the mark made at 0900).
2. Ensure level orientation: This alignment ensures the pocket navigator is level and properly oriented.
3. Determine true north: The arrow on the navigator will now point toward true north, allowing you to orient yourself in any direction of travel.
4. Continue use for up to one week: The pocket navigator remains accurate for approximately one week after initial setup.

Steps to Use the Pebble Method for Measuring Distance:

1. Determine how many paces you need to travel a specific distance, using your known pace count (e.g., 116 paces per 100 meters).
2. Place pebbles in your right pocket equal to the number of 100-meter segments in the total distance.
3. For each 100 meters traveled, move one pebble from your right pocket to your left pocket and reset your pace count.
4. Continue until all pebbles have been moved, indicating you've reached the desired distance.

Example:
• To travel 715 meters: Use seven pebbles for the first 700 meters, then take an additional 17 paces (based on your pace count) to cover the remaining 15 meters.

To access large-scale topographic maps for orienteering within the United States:

1. Obtain large-scale topographic (topo) maps from the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) Hydrographic Topographic Center.
2. The scale suitable for orienteering is 1:50,000, which provides sufficient detail for competitive navigation.

Procedure for Land Navigation Review:

1. Review and understand the principles of land navigation as outlined in FMST.07.22.

2. Study map reading techniques, including how to interpret topographic maps, identify contour lines, and determine elevation changes.

3. Practice using a compass for direction finding and orientation in mountainous environments.

4. Learn and apply the concept of triangulation to locate your position on a map based on known landmarks or points.

5. Familiarize yourself with terrain features, such as ridges, valleys, peaks, and saddles, which are critical for effective navigation in mountainous areas.

6. Practice route planning by selecting safe paths that avoid steep slopes, unstable ground, and potential hazards like crevasses or loose rock.

7. Develop skills in dead reckoning, which involves estimating your position based on speed, time, and direction traveled from a known point.

8. Understand the importance of pacing and how to use it for distance estimation when navigating without GPS or other electronic aids.

9. Review emergency navigation techniques, such as using natural signs (e.g., sun position, star patterns) in case of equipment failure.

10. Conduct regular drills and exercises in mountainous environments to reinforce skills and build confidence in land navigation under various conditions.

Important Notes:
• Land navigation is essential for survival in remote or mountainous areas where GPS signals may be unreliable or unavailable.
• Mastery of map reading, compass use, and terrain recognition significantly increases the chances of successful navigation and safety.

To select appropriate terrain for orienteering courses:

1. Choose heavily wooded areas, preferably uninhabited and with terrain that is difficult enough to suit different levels of competition.
2. Ensure the area is accessible to competitors and its use must be coordinated with appropriate terrain and range control offices.

To understand the requirements for an orienteering course:

1. The orienteering area should be on terrain that is heavily wooded, preferably uninhabited, and difficult enough to suit different levels of competition.
2. Ensure the area is accessible to competitors and its use must be coordinated with appropriate terrain and range control offices.
3. Use a multicolored, accurate, large-scale topographic map for an orienteering course (preferably at a 1:50,000 scale).

To understand orienteering:

1. Recognize that orienteering is a competitive form of land navigation suitable for all ages and degrees of fitness and skill.
2. The objective is to locate control points by using a map and compass to navigate through the woods.
3. Courses may be as long as 10 kilometers, providing suspense and excitement similar to a treasure hunt.

To understand the components of an orienteering course:

1. Each competitor is given a 1:50,000 topographic map with control points circled.
2. Control points are marked by flags and distinctive punches used to mark the scorecard.
3. The course involves running from checkpoint to checkpoint, requiring both physical endurance and mental focus.
4. Orienteering is more demanding than road running due to terrain, constant decision-making, and tracking distance covered.

To understand the ideal map for orienteering courses:

1. The ideal map is a multicolored, accurate, large-scale topographic map that portrays both man-made and natural features of the terrain.
2. A distinguishing characteristic of a topographic map is its use of contour lines to show the shape and elevation of the terrain.

To understand the history of orienteering:

1. Recognize that orienteering began in Scandinavia in the nineteenth century as a military event and part of military training.
2. The modern version was born in Sweden in 1919, created by Ernst Killander, who is considered the father of orienteering.
3. A technical boost came in the early thirties with the invention of a new compass, developed by Bjorn and Alvan Kjellstrom and their friend Brunnar Tillander.
4. Orienteering was introduced to the U.S. in 1946 by Bjorn Kjellstrom.

Procedure:

1. Identify the Ursa Major (Big Dipper) constellation, which is shaped like a dipper with seven stars.
2. Locate the two outermost stars on the 'bucket' of the Big Dipper; these are known as the pointer stars.
3. Mentally draw a line from the outer bottom star to the outer top star of the Big Dipper's bucket.
4. Extend this line about five times the distance between the pointer stars.
5. The North Star (Polaris) will be found along this extended line.

6. Identify the Cassiopeia constellation, which is shaped like a 'W' on its side.
7. Locate the center star of Cassiopeia.
8. Draw an imaginary line directly from this center star to the horizon; this points toward the North Star (Polaris).

9. Once Polaris is located, draw an imaginary line from it straight down to the earth to find true north.

Procedure:

1. Identify the Southern Cross (Crux): Locate this constellation, which is essential for navigation in the Southern Hemisphere.
2. Look Along the Milky Way: Find a dark patch called the Coal Sack, and locate the Southern Cross on its edge.
3. Confirm Identification of Crux:
- The Southern Cross should have five stars, with one less bright star nearly aligned with the foot star and an arm.
- Look for the two pointers (two bright first-magnitude stars) to the left of the cross when viewed vertically.
4. Determine True South Using Crux:
- The longest axis of the Cross towards the foot points toward the Celestial South Pole, which is over the earthly South Pole.
5. Measure the Length of the Cross: Use your hand at arm's length with thumb and forefinger as calipers to measure the cross's length from head to foot (which should be four and a half times the length from the foot).
6. Alternative Methods for True South:
- On moonless nights, use the two Magellan Clouds, which form the base of an imaginary equilateral triangle with its apex over the South Pole.
- On bright nights, use Achenar and Canopus (two very bright stars) as the base of a similar triangle.

Procedure:

1. Identify the Big Dipper (Ursa Major) in the night sky.
2. Locate the two lowest stars of the Big Dipper's cup, which are known as the pointer stars.
3. Draw an imaginary straight line between these two stars and extend it outward.
4. The North Star is located approximately 5 times the distance between the two pointer stars along this line.

Note: The North Star is the last star in the handle of the Little Dipper, but the Big Dipper is easier to find.

Procedure for Operating the Astro Compass:

1. Mount and Level the Instrument:
- Place the astro compass firmly in its mount.
- Use the levelling screws to ensure the instrument is level.

2. Set Latitude:
- Using the latitude knob, set your current latitude (in white).

3. Determine Time and Compute LHA/DEC:
- Establish the time of your intended observation in GMT.
- Use the daily page of the air almanac to compute the Local Hour Angle (LHA) of the celestial body and note its Declination (DEC).
- For Sun, Moon, and planets: LHA = GHA - Longitude
- For stars: LHA = GHA ARIES + SHA STAR - Longitude

4. Set Hour Angle:
- Rotate the Hour Angle knob until your computed LHA can be read on the Hour Angle index.

5. Adjust DEC Index:
- Set the Declination (DEC) on the DEC index (white) by moving the sight assembly up or down.

6. Orient Bearing Plate:
- At the computed time in GMT, rotate the bearing plate until the celestial body is visible through the sight assembly. The bearing plate is now correctly oriented.

7. Set Latitude to 90°:
- Without moving the instrument on the mount, set latitude to 90° (9 in white).

8. Adjust DEC to 0°:
- Set 0° DEC by adjusting the sight assembly accordingly.

9. Set True Course:
- Using the Hour Angle knob, align your desired TRUE COURSE against the TRUE BEARING marker on the Hour Angle drum.

10. Determine Aiming Point:
- Through the sight assembly, you will have an aiming point on your horizon along your intended TRUE COURSE.

11. Repeat for Accuracy:
- Repeat the operation to improve accuracy and ensure correct orientation.

Procedure:

1. Keep calculations simple by using times such as 0100, 0110, 0120, etc.
2. Pay close attention to additions and subtractions of degrees and minutes during calculations.
3. Refer to the Air Almanac (A.P. 1602) for detailed celestial navigation data, especially pages A4 to A25.

Notes:
• This simplification reduces errors in cold weather conditions where precision is critical.

Procedure:

If you cannot align the desired celestial body in the sight assembly by turning the bearing plate only:

1. Check levelling of the instrument.
2. Re-read all calculations and check for extraction errors.
3. Verify settings for LHA (Local Hour Angle) and DEC (Declination).
4. Confirm your latitude setting is correct.
5. Ensure your GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) is accurate.
6. Check if the celestial body is likely to be above the horizon at that time.
7. Verify you have selected the correct celestial body.
8. Inspect the instrument for damage.

Notes:
• If all calculations, settings, and instrument checks are correct, simply rotate the bearing plate in azimuth to align with the desired body.

Procedure:

1. Set up the gyro compass: Place it on a stable surface and allow it to stabilize.
2. Align with true north: Use a known reference (e.g., magnetic compass, star navigation) to ensure accurate alignment.
3. Maintain direction over short distances: Use the gyro compass to keep a consistent heading for limited travel ranges.
4. Cross-check periodically: Recheck your position using other methods (e.g., sun shadow tip, map reading) to avoid drift.

Notes:
• A gyro compass is less affected by magnetic interference than a standard magnetic compass.
• This method is most useful for short-range navigation in flat desert terrain.

Procedure:

1. Identify key constellations: Use the North Star (Polaris) for navigation in the Northern Hemisphere, or other recognizable star patterns.
2. Align with cardinal directions: Use the position of stars to determine north, south, east, and west.
3. Maintain a consistent heading: Keep your direction aligned with the stars throughout the journey.
4. Use a compass as a backup: If available, cross-check star positions with a magnetic or gyrocompass for accuracy.

Notes:
• Star navigation is most effective on clear nights without cloud cover.
• This method is commonly used in deserts where daytime temperatures make navigation difficult.

Procedure for Using the Moon to Determine Orientation and Navigation:

1. Understanding the Moon's Movement:
- Unlike other celestial bodies, the moon moves at a slower rate (approximately 50 minutes later each day) due to its easterly orbital motion.
- The moon rises by an average of 50 minutes later each day and sets accordingly.

2. Predicting Moonrise and Moonset Times:
- Based on the phase of the moon:
- New Moon: Rises at sunrise, sets at sunset; azimuth is same as sun's.
- First Quarter: Rises at noon, sets at midnight; azimuth is 90° east of sun's.
- Full Moon: Rises at sunset, sets at sunrise; azimuth is 180° west of sun's.

3. Using the Moon for Orientation:
- The moon’s declination varies between 28½° North and 28½° South.
- Aim at the center of the disc or where the center ought to be when using it for navigation.

Procedure for Using the Planets to Determine Orientation in the Arctic:

1. Identifying Suitable Planets:
- Only four planets are suitable for navigation: Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

2. Observing Venus:
- Visible as a morning or evening planet (before sunrise or after sunset).
- As a morning planet, it appears in the southeast; as an evening planet, it appears in the southwest.
- Never more than 3 hours or 45° away from the sun.

3. Observing Other Planets:
- Visible only at night and used similarly to the moon.
- Their declination ranges normally between 15° North and 15° South.

4. Identifying Jupiter, Mars, and Saturn:
- Jupiter appears like a distant full moon; its satellites may be visible with the unaided eye in summer evenings.
- Mars has a reddish hue, resembling a distant tangerine orange.
- Saturn looks like a star but displays a steady glow and is yellowish in color.

5. Important Note for Arctic Navigation:
- In the Arctic, a steady shining celestial body is not necessarily a planet due to atmospheric conditions that can make stars appear like planets.

Procedure for Using the Sun to Determine Orientation and Latitude:

1. Understanding the Sun's Position:
- The sun rises directly east and sets directly west on or near March 21 and September 21.
- In spring and summer, it rises in the northeast and sets in the northwest.
- In fall and winter, it rises southeast and sets southwest.

2. Using Time to Estimate Azimuth:
- At noon, the sun is directly south (180°).
- For each hour before or after noon:
- Subtract 15° from 180° for each hour short of noon (e.g., at 0900: 3 × 15° = 45° East of 180° → Azimuth = 135°).
- Add 15° to 180° for each hour past noon.

3. Using LHA to Determine Azimuth:
- Compute the sun's Local Hour Angle (LHA) and subtract 180° from that figure to estimate azimuth.

4. Determining Latitude Using Sunrise/Sunset Angle:
- The angle between the sun and the horizon at sunrise or sunset is equal to 90° minus your latitude.
- Example: If the sun rises at an angle of 22°, then Latitude = 90° - 22° = 68° North.

5. Using the Astro Compass with the Sun:
- When using the astro compass on the sun, use the shadow cast by the shadow bar on the white plastic plate for accurate readings.

Procedure:

1. Identify Polaris (the Pole Star): Locate the North Star, which is nearly directly above the North Pole.
2. Imagine a 24-hour Clock Dial: Visualize Polaris as the center of a clock face with hours marked anticlockwise:
- Midnight at 24 hours (left side)
- 6 o'clock at the left and horizontal position
- 12 o'clock directly below Polaris
- 18 o'clock at the right and horizontal position
3. Use Alpha and Beta Stars in Ursa Major: These stars act as the hour hands of the clock.
4. Adjust for Accuracy:
- This method is accurate only on March 7th.
- After that, it gains 4 minutes per day or 2 hours per month.
- For example, if the time reads 15 hours on June 1st, subtract 7 hours and 30 minutes to get the correct time.

Procedure:

1. Locate a clear area with an unobstructed view of the sky.
2. Identify key constellations or individual stars that are visible and well-known (e.g., North Star).
3. Use the position of these celestial bodies to determine direction:
- In the Northern Hemisphere, locate the North Star (Polaris) which indicates true north.
- In the Southern Hemisphere, use the Southern Cross constellation for navigation.
4. Maintain a consistent reference point and avoid obstructions that may block your view of the stars.
5. Use this information to orient yourself or plot a course when traveling at night.

Procedure:

1. Observe the moon's position in the sky; it rises in the east and sets in the west, similar to the sun.
2. Use the same shadow stick method used during the day to determine direction based on the moon’s position.
3. Construct an improvised technique for creating a shadow stick if one is not available:
- Use a straight object (e.g., a stick or branch) as a gnomon.
- Mark the tip of its shadow at two different times.
- Draw a line between these marks to determine east-west direction.

Materials needed:
• Basic knowledge of latitude and declination

Steps:
1. Determine Your Latitude: Know your current latitude (e.g., 42° North).
2. Find the Sun's Declination for the Date: Use a declination chart or previous calculations to determine the sun’s declination on that date (e.g., April 21st = 12° North).
3. **Calculate the Sun's Height Above the Horizon:
- If you are in latitude 42° North and the sun is at 12° North declination, calculate as follows:
- Subtract your latitude from 90°: $90° - 42° = 48°$.
- Add the sun's declination to this result: $48° + 12° = 60°$.
- This means that at its zenith, the sun will be 60° above the horizon.
4. Adjust for Sun Position Relative to Equator:
- If the sun is on the same side of the equator as your latitude (e.g., both North), add the declination to your calculation.
- If the sun is on the opposite side of the equator, subtract the declination from your calculation.

Example:
• Latitude: 42° North
• Date: April 21st
• Sun's Declination: +12° (North)
• Calculation: $90° - 42° = 48°$; $48° + 12° = 60°$. The sun will be 60° above the horizon at its zenith.

Note: This method is useful for estimating the sun’s position and height in navigation or survival scenarios.

Materials Required:

• A straight piece of wood (minimum 18" [45 cm] long)
• Two lengths of cord
• A third, thinner length of cord (for plumb-bob)
• A weight (e.g., clasp knife, lead sinker, or a long thin stone)

Construction Steps:

1. Prepare the Wood Stick:
- Ensure the wood is straight and smooth.
- The stick should be at least 18" [45 cm] in length (or 36" [91.4 cm] for finer readings).
- Flatten both ends of the stick and drill or burn a hole through each flattened end.
- Ensure the holes are exactly 18" [45.7 cm] apart on their inside edges.

2. Attach the Cords:
- Pass two lengths of cord through the holes in the wood, securing them with thumb knots at both ends.
- Tie the two cords together at a point that is 12¾ inches (or 25.45" [64.6 cm] for a 36" [91.4 cm] stick) from the center of the wood.

3. Add the Plumb-Bob Cord:
- Tie a third, thinner cord to the junction point where the two cords are tied together.
- The plumb-bob cord should be approximately 18" [45 cm] long.
- Attach a weight (e.g., clasp knife, lead sinker, or a long thin stone) to the end of the plumb-bob cord.

4. Mark the Scale on the Stick:
- From the inside edge of one hole, measure and mark 9" [22.9 cm] (or 18" [45.7 cm] for a 36" [91.4 cm] stick) along the length of the wood.
- Repeat this from the other end so that both marks meet exactly at the center of the stick.
- On one side of the stick, mark the scale as shown in the illustration (from 0° to 45° on one side and 45° to 90° on the other). Alternatively, you can mark the stick continuously from end to end.

5. Use the Harp:
- Hold the quadrant harp so that it is level with your eye and aligned with the sun or star you wish to measure.
- Sight upward along the cord at the 90° end until the cord is aligned with the object (sun or star).
- The plumb-bob should be swinging freely along the stick. When the cord is aligned, the plumb-bob string will just brush against the number of degrees on the scale corresponding to the elevation of the sun or star.

6. Fine Adjustments for Accuracy:
- For finer readings (accurate to ½° or less), use a 36" [91.4 cm] base stick, 25.45" [64.6 cm] cord, and make each degree on the scale twice as long.

Notes:
• The critical feature is building an accurate right-angled triangle where the string sides are √2 / 2 (or about 0.7071) of the length of the stick.
• A large protractor can be used to mark the scale on the stick by placing its apex at the center and aligning one string along the 0° line and the other along the 90° line.

Procedure:

1. Prepare the sundial: Create a smooth board approximately fifteen inches across and draw a circle divided into twenty-four equal parts.
2. Add a pointer: Attach a temporarily hinged pointer to the board so that its upper edge is in the middle of the dial.
3. Position the sundial: Place it on a level, solid post or stump in an open area.
4. Align with north: At night, adjust the sundial so that the twelve o'clock line points exactly to north as determined by the Pole-star.
5. Set the pointer angle: Use two temporary sighting sticks of equal height to align the pointer exactly with the Pole-star. The angle should be set according to the latitude of the location (e.g., 40 degrees for a specific area).
6. Secure the pointer: Fix the pointer in place so it remains immovable.
7. Remove sighting sticks: Once aligned, remove the temporary sighting sticks.

Notes:
• This sundial will be roughly accurate for the latitude at which it is set up.
• The angle of the pointer (or style) must be adjusted for different latitudes to ensure accuracy.

Procedure:

1. Prepare the bucket: Arrange it in the daytime so that it can be filled from rim to rim, ensuring it is level. This provides a reference for the horizon line.
2. Set up the sticks: Fasten two sticks together at an adjustable angle.
3. Position the sticks: Lay one stick across the bucket as a base and raise the other until the sight notches on its upper edge are in a straight line with the Pole-star.
4. Fix the angle: Once aligned, fasten the sticks at this angle and store them for use during the night.
5. Create a right angle on a board: Use a smooth board (such as one from a wagon or ship) to draw a right angle by measuring off a triangle with sides of 6, 8, and 10 inches.
6. Apply the star angle: Place the sticks at the measured angle on the board and use them to determine the latitude by comparing it against known angles (e.g., 45 degrees, 22-1/2 degrees, etc.).
7. Refine the measurement: Use a process of equal subdivision to narrow down the latitude.

Notes:
• This method is historically used and may not be practical for modern scouts due to the complexity of the tools required.
• The accuracy of this procedure can vary depending on the precision of measurements and alignment with the Pole-star.

Procedure:

1. Locate the Dipper: Look for the large, spoon-shaped constellation known as the Great Bear or Dipper. It is easily recognizable due to its distinctive shape and size.

2. Identify the Pointers: The two outer stars of the Dipper's bowl (Alpha and Beta) are known as the Pointers. These stars point toward the Pole Star (Polaris).

3. Locate the Pole Star: From the Pointers, imagine a line extending outward from them. The Pole Star lies approximately 3.5 times the distance between the two Pointers in that direction.

4. Use the Dipper as a Guide: Since the Dipper never sets in our latitude and always points toward the Pole Star, it can be used to find true north at any time of night.

Notes:
• The Pole Star is not very bright but is fixed in position relative to other stars. It is located at the end of the Little Bear's tail.
• This method is especially useful for navigation in the wilderness or when no other tools are available.
• In some cultures, the Dipper is known as the 'Broken Back' and the Pole Star is referred to as the 'Home Star' or 'The Star that Never Moves.'

Procedure:

1. Identify the Southern Cross: Locate the constellation known as the Southern Cross, which is a distinctive cross-shaped formation.
2. Use the long axis of the cross: Draw an imaginary line through the long axis of the Southern Cross to locate a dark spot approximately three degrees offset from the South Pole.
3. Differentiate between True and False Crosses: The True Cross has two closely spaced, very bright stars trailing behind its crosspiece. These are easier to identify than the less distinct False Cross, which is larger, more widely spaced, and contains five stars.
4. Confirm with bright stars: Look for the two brightest stars in the Southern Cross, which are located on the southern and eastern arms of the cross.

Procedure: Describe Seasonal Relationship of the Sun

• Without the aid of references, describe in writing the following:

- Equinox: During the equinox (spring and autumn), the sun rises and sets at approximately the same point on the horizon. The sun is directly above the equator, resulting in nearly equal hours of daylight and darkness.

- Solstice: During the solstice (summer and winter), the sun reaches its highest or lowest point in the sky. In summer, the sun rises and sets farthest north; in winter, it rises and sets farthest south. This affects the length of day and night.

Procedure:

1. Recognize that the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia rotate around the North Star, so they will not always appear in the same position.
2. In higher latitudes (e.g., near the Arctic Circle), the North Star appears very high in the sky or even directly overhead.
3. At such positions, all directions lead south, making it more difficult to use the North Star for accurate navigation.

### Use Circular Navigational Chart to Determine Sun's Bearing

Steps:

1. Determine the sun’s maximum amplitude at your operating latitude using the top portion of the chart. For example, if your operating latitude is 38 degrees, use that value.
2. Scale the center baseline of the chart where 0 appears as the middle number; write in the maximum amplitude on the horizontal north/south baseline.
3. Continue to scale the baseline: Divide the baseline into 6 to 10 tick marks that represent equal divisions of the maximum amplitude.
4. From today’s date along the circumference, draw a straight line down until it intersects the baseline.
5. The number this line intersects is today’s solar amplitude: If the number is left of 0, it is a north amplitude; if the number is right of 0, it is a south amplitude.
6. Use the formula at the bottom of the chart to determine the sun’s bearing at sunrise or sunset.

Notes:
• This technique requires access to a circular navigational chart.
• The accuracy depends on the precision of the chart and your ability to interpret it.

Procedure:

1. Set Up the Gyro Compass: Place the gyro compass on a stable surface and ensure it is level.
2. Stabilize the Device: Allow the gyro compass to stabilize before taking readings.
3. Maintain Direction: Use the compass to maintain direction over limited distances, especially on fairly flat ground.
4. Cross-Check with Other Methods: Verify readings using a map or other navigational tools for accuracy.

Notes:
• This method is most effective when used in conjunction with other navigation techniques.
• The gyro compass should be used primarily for short-range direction maintenance.
• Ensure that the device is not affected by magnetic interference.

Procedure:

1. Identify Key Stars: Use the North Star (Polaris) in the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern Cross in the Southern Hemisphere for orientation.
2. Determine Direction: Align yourself with the identified star to determine true north or south.
3. Use Other Celestial Bodies: If the North Star is not visible, use other constellations such as Orion’s Belt or the Big Dipper for reference.
4. Account for Time of Night: Adjust your navigation based on the position of stars at different times during the night.

Notes:
• Navigation using stars should be done away from light sources to avoid glare.
• This method is most effective in clear, open desert areas with minimal obstructions.
• Combine star navigation with other methods (e.g., sun shadow tip) for greater accuracy.

Procedure:

1. Set Up the Sun Compass: Place the sun compass on a stable surface and ensure it is level.
2. Align with True North: Use accurate timekeeping to align the compass with true north based on the position of the sun.
3. Adjust for Deviation: Account for any deviation caused by metal or electronic components in vehicles, which may be less than +10 degrees.
4. Maintain Direction: Use the compass to maintain a consistent heading during travel.

Notes:
• This method is most effective when used on moving vehicles or with sextants.
• Ensure that timekeeping devices are synchronized and accurate.
• Combine with other navigation tools (e.g., map, GPS) for greater accuracy.

Procedure:

1. Locate the Dipper: Identify the Great Bear or Dipper in the night sky.

2. Observe the Movement of the Bowl: The bowl of the Dipper swings approximately 15 degrees (one and one half times the width of the opening) in one hour as it rotates around the Pole Star.

3. Estimate Time Based on Position: By observing how far the bowl has moved from its position relative to the Pole Star, you can estimate the time passed since a known reference point (e.g., sunset or sunrise).

4. Calculate Hours Slept: If the Dipper has moved a quarter of the circle around the Pole Star, it indicates that approximately six hours have passed.

Notes:
• This method is useful for estimating time in the wilderness when no clock or watch is available.
• The movement of the Dipper is due to Earth's rotation and not because the stars are moving.
• This technique was historically used by woodsmen and travelers as a natural way to track time at night.

To determine local apparent noon using the string method, follow these steps:

1. Set up a straight, level surface and place a vertical stick or object (a gnomon) at one end.
2. Stretch a string across the ground in a straight line from the gnomon to a point where it will be visible for several hours after noon.
3. Mark two equidistant points on either side of the estimated local apparent noon time using the string as a guide.
4. Observe the shadow cast by the gnomon at these marked times and note when the shadow is shortest (this is the point closest to true local apparent noon).
5. The center point between the two equidistant marks represents local apparent noon.

This method helps refine the time of local apparent noon in situations where precise sunrise/sunset data is unavailable.

Purpose: To determine your true direction using the astro compass and data from the Air Almanac.

Steps:
1. Ensure you have access to the latest edition of the Air Almanac and the astro compass.
2. Determine the following information:
- Correct GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)
- Your current latitude and longitude
- GHA (Greenwich Hour Angle) of the celestial body being used for navigation
- DEC (Declination) of the celestial body
3. Set up the astro compass:
- Level the instrument using the levelling screws and cross levels.
- Align the bearing plate to 0° or your estimated direction.
4. Input data into the astro compass:
- Use the latitude knob to set the observer's latitude on the latitude scale.
- Use the Hour Angle knob to set the LHA of the celestial body on the LHA drum.
- Ensure the declination scale is correctly aligned with the DEC of the celestial body.
5. Point the open end of the sight assembly at the celestial body, ensuring it aligns with the shadow bar and fluorescent markers.
6. Read the true bearing from the bearing plate (opposite side of the LHA drum).
7. Adjust your direction based on the reading to ensure proper alignment with the celestial body.

### Determine Sun's Position at Equinox and Solstice

Equinoxes and Solstices:

• Summer Solstice (21 June): The sun has no apparent northward or southward motion.
• Winter Solstice (21 December): The sun has no apparent northward or southward motion.
• Vernal Equinox (20 March): The sun crosses the celestial equator, and day and night are approximately equal in length.
• Autumnal Equinox (23 September): The sun crosses the celestial equator, and day and night are approximately equal in length.

Seasonal Relationship:

The Earth moves in a cycle from solstice to equinox. During each day, the sun appears to travel in a uniform arc across the sky from sunrise to sunset. Exactly halfway along its daily journey, the sun will be directly south of an observer (or north if the observer is in the Southern Hemisphere). This rule may not apply to observers in the tropics (between 23.5 degrees north and south latitude) or in the polar regions (60 degrees latitude). It is at this point that shadows appear their shortest. The time at which this occurs is referred to as local apparent noon.

Procedure:

1. Locate the Dipper: Identify the Great Bear or Dipper in the night sky.

2. Find the Handle of the Dipper: Look at the long, bent handle of the Dipper.

3. Identify Mizar and Alcor: The star at the bend of the handle is known as Mizar (one of the Horses). Just above it, close to Mizar, is a smaller star called Alcor (the Rider).

4. Test Eyesight by Observing Alcor: Attempt to see Alcor with the naked eye. If you can distinguish it from Mizar, this indicates excellent eyesight.

Notes:
• This test has been used historically in various cultures, including among Native American tribes and ancient civilizations, as a way to assess visual acuity.
• In some traditions, these two stars are referred to as the 'Old Squaw and the Pappoose on Her Back.'
• The ability to see Alcor is considered an important trait for hunters and scouts.

Purpose: The astro compass is used to determine true direction using astronomical data.

Components of the Astro Compass (from bottom to top):
1. Clamping device: Holds the instrument firmly on a standard.
2. Two levelling screws: Used for leveling the instrument.
3. Two cross levels: Monitor horizontal alignment.
4. Bearing plate: Graduated from 0° to 360°, free to rotate; acts as the compass card.
5. Local Hour Angle (LHA) drum: Controlled by the Hour Angle knob. One side sets LHA, and the opposite side sets True Bearing.
6. Latitude scale: Located adjacent to the Hour Angle knob, controlled by the latitude knob. Marked in tens of degrees north or south.
7. Declination scale: Mounted on top of the Hour Angle drum, ranging from 64° South to 64° North.
8. Sight assembly:
- Open end with a shadow bar and two fluorescent markers
- Opposite end has a white plastic plate and lens
- The open end is pointed at the celestial body
9. Note: In the northern hemisphere, use only the white markings on the instrument; disregard all red markings.

Inputs Required for True Direction:
1. Latitude of the observer
2. Local Hour Angle (LHA) of the celestial body
3. Declination (DEC) of the celestial body

Procedure:

1. Observe the moon's position in the sky:
- In winter, the full moon reaches an altitude near the limit attained by the sun in summer.
- At certain times, it can be five degrees higher than the sun's summer altitude.
- In summer, the moon remains very low in the sky.

2. Understand the moon's orbital period:
- The moon completes one orbit around the Earth in 27-1/4 days.

3. Track the moon's rising time:
- Each night, the moon rises approximately three fourths of an hour later than the previous night.
- This gradual shift is due to the moon's orbital motion relative to the Earth.

Note: These observations are useful for navigation and timing activities under the moonlight.

Purpose: The Air Almanac provides essential astronomical data for navigation using celestial bodies.

Steps:
1. Obtain the latest edition of the Air Almanac, which is published three times a year by the Royal Greenwich Observatory.
2. Each issue contains four months of data:
- Volume 1: January to May inclusive
- Volume 2: May to September inclusive
- Volume 3: September to January inclusive
3. Pages 1–242 cover Greenwich days:
- Odd-numbered pages: Midnight to 1150 GMT
- Even-numbered pages: Noon to 2350 GMT
4. At the top of each page, you will find the date and weekday in GMT.
5. Each celestial body available on that day is listed in a column:
- For the Sun, Moon, and Planets: Two columns are provided (GHA and DEC)
- For Stars: One column labeled ARIES
6. Definitions:
- GHA (Greenwich Hour Angle): Corresponds to longitude on Earth, measured westward from the Greenwich meridian.
- DEC (Declination): Corresponds to latitude on Earth, measured north or south from the equator.
7. For stars, ARIES is used as a reference point:
- The SHA (Siderial Hour Angle) of a star is the angular difference between ARIES and the celestial meridian of that star.
- DEC remains the celestial latitude of the star.
8. Important Note: Always use GMT in all celestial navigation calculations. GMT is 5 hours ahead of EST and 6 hours ahead of CST.

Step 2: Plan the Route

When selecting a route, consider the following factors:

1. Travel time and distance: Ensure the route is feasible within the available timeframe.
2. Maneuver room needed: Allow enough space for unit movement and positioning.
3. Trafficability: Choose routes that are passable by your unit’s equipment and personnel.
4. Load-bearing capacity of soil: Avoid areas where the ground may collapse or be unstable under weight.
5. Energy expenditure by troops: Select a route that minimizes fatigue for soldiers.
6. METT-TC factors (Mission, Enemy, Terrain, Troops, Time, and Civilian considerations): Consider all aspects of the mission environment.
7. Tactical aspects of terrain (OCOKA): Observe, Concealment/cover, Observation posts, Key terrain, and Accessibility.
8. Logistical support: Ensure the route allows for resupply and movement of supplies.
9. Surprise potential: Choose a route that may allow you to avoid detection by the enemy.
10. Control and coordination features: Select routes with natural or man-made control points (e.g., roads, streams) that aid in navigation.
11. Checkpoints and steering marks: Use linear features such as perennial streams, ridges, valleys, railroads, power lines, and elevation changes for reliable reference points.

Route Selection Criteria:
• Cover and concealment: Choose routes that provide protection from enemy observation or fire.
• Reliable checkpoints: Especially important during night operations. Linear features are preferred as they are easier to recognize.
• Decision points: Plan for changes in direction, which should be marked by recognizable features on the map.

Route Preference:
• Follow valleys or ridgelines where possible, as these offer good navigation checkpoints and cover/concealment.
• Avoid relying heavily on cultural features (e.g., roads, buildings) or vegetation, as they may have changed since the map was last updated.

Importance of Planning: Poor route selection can lead to mission failure due to delays, fatigue, ambushes, or exposure. Careful planning is essential for every movement.

Steps:

1. Conduct a map and route reconnaissance of the convoy route.
2. Use engineer reconnaissance report information (DA Form 1711-R), if available, to determine route characteristics that may impact the convoy mission.
3. Select an alternate route, if possible, in case the primary route becomes unavailable or compromised.
4. Determine all critical points/checkpoints along the route.
5. Determine situational requirements for the convoy operation.
6. Identify choke points along the route that may endanger the mission.
7. Plot all necessary items on a map, including checkpoints, halts, and other relevant features.
8. Plot scheduled halts on the map to ensure proper planning and coordination.

Before starting your journey, perform a detailed map study to determine the following:

• Accessibility by vehicle
• Location of fuel and water sources
• Best route for travel
• Alternate routes in case of necessity
• Aids to navigation available
• Evacuation positions available
• Location of local inhabitants

Note: In the absence of an official map, obtain a rough map drawn on paper with landmarks and distances indicated. Mark your position as you travel to pinpoint your location at any time.

Procedure:

1. Brief all troops, not only commanders and navigators, on the planned route before the march begins.

2. During the march:
- Keep troops informed of their progress.
- At each halt, provide information on:
- The distance yet to be marched
- Estimated time required to complete the remaining distance
- Any changes to the route that may be necessary

3. Ensure that all personnel are aware of the importance of accuracy in navigation and terrain recognition.

4. Stress the importance of being observant and remembering key features of the country through which the troops will pass.

Procedure:

1. Plan the route in detail before the march begins using:
- Route reconnaissance
- Maps
- Air photographs

2. Choose the easiest route that is consistent with tactical demands.

3. Avoid obstacles such as:
- Open water
- Rocky or hilly terrain
- Soft snow (where possible)

4. Complete route cards before the march begins to ensure all personnel are aware of the planned route.

5. Brief the commander of the trail breaking party thoroughly on the planned route and any potential hazards.

Objective: Choose the most suitable and safe route based on terrain, unit capabilities, and mission requirements.

Procedure:
1. Identify the starting point and determine the movement objective.
2. Plot start and end points on the map for reference.
3. Carefully scrutinize the area between these points to begin selecting a route.
4. Consider the following factors:
- Trafficability: Evaluate slope degree, vegetation density, trail width, snow depth, avalanche risk, and crevasse likelihood.
- Time-Distance Formula: Calculate time and distance requirements based on mission constraints.
- Required Equipment: Ensure that all necessary equipment is available for the route and potential extended stays.
- Location of Enemy: Plan a route that maximizes terrain masking (e.g., coniferous forests) and avoids danger areas or recent enemy activity unless required by the mission.
- Communications: Be aware that communications may be severely limited in mountainous regions. Identify dead spaces or communication holes in advance.
- Unit Conditions/Capabilities: Ensure the unit is physically and mentally capable of negotiating the chosen route based on current health, training level, and equipment availability.
- Checkpoints/Control Points: Use prominent terrain features (e.g., elevation changes) as checkpoints. Avoid manmade features due to their lack of permanence or reliability.

Procedure:

1. Consider tactical aspects, such as avoiding skylining or selecting key terrain for overwatch positions.

2. Select the easiest possible route that minimizes wear on the vehicle and allows for maneuverability.

3. Bypass difficult terrain to reduce noise, slow movement, and potential recovery problems.

4. Achieve tactical surprise by selecting an unexpected axis or corridor instead of a specific route.

5. Ensure there is room for vehicles to maneuver along the chosen path.

Procedure:

1. Assess the terrain for signs of flooding, mud, or other obstacles that could hinder vehicle movement.

2. Plan an alternate route that avoids flooded or muddy areas to prevent the vehicle from getting stuck.

3. Consider tactical implications of the chosen route, ensuring it supports combat capability and minimizes risk.

4. Verify the new route for ease of movement and visibility under current weather conditions.

5. Communicate adjustments to the team or unit to ensure everyone is aware of the revised plan.

Procedure:

1. In the event of damaged, blocked, or impassable roads:
- Staff members will take alternate routes if possible.
- If alternate routes are not available, notify an Emergency Supervisor of the inability to reach an area.
2. Remember: The official personnel who are at the site (police, ambulance personnel, etc.) have had training in handling emergencies, as well as potentially hazardous situations.
3. If told not to go to a certain area, do not go.

Procedure:

1. Identify any anticipated changes to the planned route during the operation.
2. Coordinate with all units and personnel involved to ensure they are informed of these changes.
3. Update route planning documents accordingly to reflect the new information.
4. Ensure that alternative routes are prepared in case of unexpected obstacles or threats.
5. Document all expected route changes for reference during operations.

Note: Being proactive about potential route changes helps prevent delays and ensures operational continuity.

Procedure:

1. Assess the current condition of the roads that will be used during the operation.
2. Consider factors such as surface quality, potential obstacles, and weather conditions.
3. Share this information with all relevant personnel to ensure they are prepared for any challenges.
4. Plan accordingly based on road conditions to avoid delays or safety issues.
5. Document the assessed road conditions for reference during operations.

Note: Understanding road conditions is essential for ensuring safe and efficient convoy movement.

Procedure:

1. Identify the start point where the convoy will begin its movement.
2. Determine the release point where units or personnel will be released from the convoy.
3. Ensure that both points are clearly defined and communicated to all involved parties.
4. Verify that these points align with the overall mission objectives and route planning.
5. Document the start and release points for reference during operations.

Note: Clear definitions of start and release points help prevent confusion and ensure smooth transitions.

Procedure:

1. Plan the schedule of movements, including start times and durations.
2. Coordinate with all units involved to ensure synchronization.
3. Consider factors such as serials and march units when developing the timetable.
4. Document the timetable and share it with relevant personnel for clarity and consistency.
5. Ensure flexibility is built into the schedule to accommodate unforeseen circumstances.

Note: A well-planned timetable helps maintain order and efficiency during operations.

Develop Alternate Routes for Travel:

1. Identify and plan alternative routes to and from work, school, or other essential locations in case of road closures or traffic disruptions.
2. Share these alternate routes with all family members who may need them.
3. Practice using the alternate routes during drills or exercises to ensure they are viable and well-known.
4. Keep a printed map or digital navigation system updated with current road conditions and potential detours.
5. Stay informed about local traffic advisories and updates from emergency management officials.

Title: Distribute and Review Route Plans

Procedure:
1. Ensure all group members have a copy of the route plan.
2. Review the route plan with all participants to identify any hazardous sections or potential risks along the path.
3. Confirm that all maps used are current, accurate, and up-to-date.
4. Make sure everyone understands the planned route and knows what to do in case of an unexpected situation.

Objective: Collect and analyze intelligence to ensure safe and effective route selection.

Procedure:
1. Review the latest intelligence reports to determine enemy positions and movements.
2. Consider weather reports, including snow conditions, avalanche probability, and temperature data.
3. Use aerial photos and any past or recent operational history in the area for additional insights.
4. Analyze terrain features that may provide natural cover or concealment from enemy observation.

Procedure:

1. Determine the assembly area where all convoy personnel and units will gather.
2. Ensure the location is clearly marked and accessible to all members of the convoy.
3. Communicate the coordination point details to all relevant personnel in advance.
4. Verify that the coordination point supports the needs of the convoy, including security and logistics.
5. Document the coordination points for reference during operations.

Note: Coordination points are essential for maintaining unity and control within the convoy.

Procedure:

1. Determine the primary route that will be used during the operation.
2. Identify alternate routes in case the primary route becomes unavailable or compromised.
3. Ensure both the primary and alternate routes are clearly defined and communicated to all relevant personnel.
4. Verify that the alternate routes meet the same criteria as the primary route, including security and accessibility.
5. Document the primary and alternate routes for reference during operations.

Note: Having alternate routes is essential for maintaining flexibility and ensuring mission continuity.

Procedure:

1. The commander responsible for trail breaking will select the most suitable route based on the following factors:
- a. Tactical situation;
- b. Terrain;
- c. Snow and weather conditions;
- d. Type of equipment moving with the main body.

2. Route selection, whenever possible, will be made from reconnaissance, maps, and air photographs.

3. Based on the above considerations, the commander will make out a route card (see Figure 5-1). He will provide each of his navigators with a copy of the route card and brief them thoroughly.

4. The factors outlined in subpara I will determine the number of trails to be broken and whether separate routes must be selected for vehicles and skiers/snowshoers.

5. The trail-breaking group must be dispatched well in advance of the move of the main body. Their rate of march will depend on:
- Terrain;
- Snow conditions;
- Difficulty or ease of navigation;
- Number of trails to be broken;
- Amount of improvement which must be made to the trail, etc.

6. No general rule of thumb can be given for the time of their dispatch. The unit commander must assess the difficulty of the task and the capability of his trail-breaking group in order to determine how far in advance he must dispatch the trail breakers.

7. They must be within radio communication distance.

Purpose: To ensure all group members have a clear understanding of the route, emergency procedures, and safety instructions.

Steps:
1. Group Details:
- Record the name of the group and full names of all members.
- Note any limiting medical conditions or medications taken by group members.
2. Map Details:
- Include the map title, edition number, scale, and magnetic variation.
- Draw a sketch map for reference.
3. Route Details:
- List route numbers and the number of legs that make up each route.
4. Waypoints:
- For each waypoint or landmark:
- Record its position as a six-figure grid reference.
- Provide a detailed description of the location.
5. Distance:
- Measure the distance to be covered in metres over the ground.
- Estimate the number of paces required to cover that distance.
6. Heading:
- Determine the grid bearing from the map.
- Calculate the magnetic bearing by applying the magnetic variation for the map to the grid bearing.
- Record both bearings.
7. Description of Going:
- Draw a cross-sectional diagram for each leg of the route.
- Describe the terrain, density of vegetation, and any features that will be encountered.
8. Estimating Journey Time:
- Use Naismith’s Rule as a guide:
- Allow 1 hour for every 5000 m of easy going.
- Add 1 hour for every 450 m of ascent.
- Add 1 hour for every 900 m of descent.
- Allow an additional 1 hour for every 3000 m of scrambling or rough going.
- Consider fatigue and adjust time estimates accordingly.
9. Escape Routes and Safety Procedures:
- Pre-determine escape routes and include them in the plan.
- Write safety instructions clearly, concisely, and in language that is easily understood by all group members during an emergency.

Notes:
• This document should be shared with all group members before departure.
• It is a critical part of team-building and ensures preparedness for emergencies.

Procedure:

• Determine if and how many route guides are necessary for the movement.

• Determine time/distance factors, including:
- Driver limitations.
- Maximum driving time per shift.
- Use of co-drivers to manage fatigue.

Details:
• Consider terrain, weather, and driver endurance when planning these factors.

Procedure:

1. Identify the starting location on the map or using available landmarks.

2. Locate the destination based on mission objectives or navigational requirements.

3. Mark both points clearly on the map to ensure clarity during route planning.

4. Ensure accuracy of both locations by cross-referencing with other sources if necessary.

To determine the number of route guides necessary:

• Assess the complexity of the route and terrain conditions.
• Consider the number of vehicles and personnel in the convoy.
• Ensure that there are enough route guides to cover all segments of the journey.
• Coordinate with drivers and navigators to ensure accurate guidance throughout the mission.

Procedure:

1. Use the map to draw a straight line between the start point and destination.

2. If drawing is not possible, visualize the route mentally based on the map's scale and features.

3. Ensure that the line represents the most direct path between the two points.

4. Check for terrain obstacles along this line to determine if adjustments are needed.

Procedure:

1. Move along a valley floor, as it provides the easiest path for vehicle travel.

2. Travel near or on the crest of a ridgeline, which offers visibility and ease of movement.

3. Use these natural features to maintain direction and reduce navigational errors.

4. Ensure that the chosen route allows for maneuverability and avoids unnecessary obstacles.

Procedure:

1. Analyze the terrain along the planned route for ease of movement.

2. Identify recognizable features that can be used as checkpoints under current weather conditions.

3. Consider tactical considerations, such as avoiding skylining or selecting concealed routes.

4. Ensure that all features selected are visible from a moving vehicle and recognizable in the current light and weather conditions.

Objective: Ensure accurate and up-to-date map information is used for route selection.

Procedure:
1. Check the date of the map to determine its reliability in depicting features such as vegetation, clearings, roads, and trails accurately.
2. Use all the latest topographic data available to ensure the most accurate representation of the terrain.
3. Avoid using outdated or unreliable maps that may not reflect current conditions.

### Performance Steps

1. Use special purpose maps and aerial photographs when planning a route. If those aids are available, they provide the most current information.
2. Reconnoiter the route if time is available and the tactical situation permits it.
3. Conduct a map reconnaissance of the area that you had to move over.
4. Select a route with the appropriate characteristics:
- Offers the best cover and concealment
- Provides the best observation and fields of fire for support elements
- Allows positive control of elements
- Accomplishes the mission without unnecessary or prolonged exposure to enemy fire
5. Ensure that the selected route is based on a 1:50,000-scale military map and compass.
6. Follow an oral or written operation order provided during evaluation setup.

### Evaluation Preparation
• Setup: In a field environment, provide the Soldier with a 1:50,000-scale military map of the area and a compass, and issue him/her an oral or written operation order.
• Brief Soldier: Tell the Soldier to select a route of movement between two given points (marked on the map) where the likelihood of enemy contact is unknown. The Soldier must select a route that offers the best cover and concealment, ensure the best observation and fields of fire for support elements, allow positive control of elements, and accomplish the mission without unnecessary or prolonged exposure to enemy fire.

### Performance Measures
• Conducted a map reconnaissance of the area that you had to move over.
• Selected a route with the appropriate characteristics.

### Evaluation Guidance
Refer to chapter 1, paragraph 1-4 b (6).

To estimate walking time using Naismith’s Rule:

1. Base time: Allow 1 hour for every:
- 5,000 meters of easy terrain,
- 3,000 meters of scrambling terrain,
- 1,500 meters of rough or difficult terrain.
2. Add ascent and descent time:
- Add 1 hour for every 450 meters of ascent.
- Add 1 hour for every 900 meters of descent.
3. Account for fatigue: Add an additional 1 hour for every 5 hours of walking to account for fatigue.

This rule is intended for an average hiker with a medium-weight pack and should be adjusted based on individual fitness, weather conditions, and terrain difficulty.

Procedure:

1. Identify a reference point with a known direction.
2. Measure horizontal angular deviations from the reference point using binoculars or hand estimation.
3. When using binoculars:
- Determine angular deviation to the nearest 1 mil.
- Use the horizontal scale of the reticle, which is divided into increments of 10 mils.
4. Apply the Right Add/Left Subtract (RALS) rule to calculate the new direction.
5. Announce the new direction to the target.
6. Express the final direction to the nearest 10 mils and within 60 mils of the actual direction.
7. Note: Ensure understanding of RALS when determining direction from a known reference point.

Procedure:

1. Use an M2 or lensatic compass to measure direction.
2. Ensure accuracy is within 10 mils.
3. Warning: Avoid using the compass near radios or large concentrations of metal such as vehicles.
4. Maintain a minimum distance of 50 meters from large metal objects to avoid incorrect readings.

Using the Stars for Direction Finding:

1. Identify your hemisphere (Northern or Southern) to determine which constellation to use.
2. In the Northern Hemisphere, locate the North Star (Polaris), which is part of the Little Dipper constellation and points directly north.
3. In the Southern Hemisphere, identify constellations such as Crux (the Southern Cross) or Hemisphere to determine south direction.
4. Use these celestial references to orient yourself in the absence of other tools.

Watch Method (Northern Hemisphere):

1. Use an analog watch with hands and ensure it is set to true local time (not daylight savings time).
2. Hold the watch horizontally and point the hour hand at the sun.
3. Bisect the angle between the hour hand and the 12 o'clock mark—this line points in the north-south direction.
4. To determine which end is north, remember:
- The sun rises in the east, sets in the west, and is due south at noon.
- If it's before noon, the sun is in the east; if after noon, it's in the west.
5. If using daylight savings time, use the midpoint between the hour hand and 1 o'clock to determine the north-south line.

1. Determine direction using the shadow-tip method.

a. Place a stick or branch into the ground vertically at a fairly level spot where the sun will cast a distinct shadow. Mark the shadow with a stone, twig, or other means (figure 071-329-1018-1).

b. Wait 10 or 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few inches. Mark the new position of the shadow tip just like the first (figure 071-329-1018-2).

c. Draw a straight line through the two marks you made on the shadow tips. This line is an East-West line (figure 071-329-1018-3).

- d. Determine which is the East end of the line and which is the West end.

- (1) The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.

- (2) The first shadow tip you mark will always be West, and the second mark will always be East.

- (3) The shadow tip moves in the opposite direction.

e. Determine North and South. Draw a line at a right angle to the East-West line at any point (figure 071-329-1018-4). This is the North-South line.

Objective: Learn how to determine direction (north and south) using natural methods without a compass.

Materials Required:
• A long straight stick

Steps:
1. During the day, each competitor is given a long straight stick.
2. They are instructed to lay it due north and south, using any natural method they can find (e.g., sun position, moss on trees) except a compass.
3. The direction of the stick is checked with a good compass corrected for the locality.
4. The competitor who comes nearest to true north and south wins.

Optional: Judges may decide whether the use of a timepiece (e.g., watch) is allowed during this activity.

Notes: This game teaches scouts how to find direction using natural signs, an essential skill in survival or navigation scenarios.

Procedure:

1. Identify suitable stars:
- Use a star near the horizon with a bearing within two degrees of your compass course.
- This star can be used as an aiming mark for up to 30 minutes when heading North, and only for 15 minutes when heading South.

2. Use the pole star (North Star) in appropriate latitudes:
- In latitudes under 70 degrees, the North Star is a good aiming point since its bearing is usually within one degree of True North.
- In higher latitudes, the North Star is too high in the sky to be useful for direction finding.

Procedure:

1. Select the appropriate compass:
- In extreme cold, use a dry card compass instead of a liquid-filled one, as the latter may become sluggish.

2. Take a bearing using the compass:
- Identify a well-defined aiming mark (e.g., a tree, mountain, or cloud) that lies along your desired direction of travel.
- Use the compass to take a bearing on the aiming mark.

3. Maintain direction while marching:
- Keep the aiming mark in sight as you march; this helps maintain course without constantly referring to the compass.

4. Use natural features for direction during the day:
- Use lone trees, mountains, or distant clouds near the horizon as steering aids.
- Check cloud movement rate with your compass every 10–15 minutes to ensure consistency.
- A steady wind can also be used as a directional aid if it is strong enough and checked periodically with the compass for direction changes.

### Procedure: Determine Direction Using Five Methods

#### Overview
Determining direction is an essential skill for the observer. It plays a critical role in terrain-map association, adjustment of fire, and target location.

#### Methods to Determine Direction
1. Estimating:
- The observer should be able to visualize the eight cardinal directions (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW).
- This is the least preferred method due to its lower accuracy.

2. Scaling from a Map:
- Use a protractor to scale direction from a map with an accuracy of 10 mils.

3. Using a Compass:
- Use a M2 or lensatic compass to measure direction with an accuracy of 10 mils.
- Warnings: Be careful when using a compass around radios or large concentrations of metal such as vehicles.
- Maintain a minimum distance of 50 meters from large metal objects to avoid incorrect readings.

4. Measuring from a Reference Point:
- Measure horizontal angular deviations and apply them to the reference directions using a known direction point.
- Steps:
- Know how to measure angular deviations with binoculars or by hand.
- When measuring with binoculars, determine angular deviation to the nearest 1 mil.
- The horizontal scale of the binocular reticle pattern is divided into increments of 10 mils.
- The vertical scale in the center of the lens is divided into increments of 10 mils and used in HOB adjustments.
- Apply the Right Add/Left Subtract (RALS) rule to determine direction.
- Direction increases to the right and decreases to the left.
- Announce the new direction to the target after applying RALS.
- Express direction to the nearest 10 mils and within 60 mils of the actual direction.

5. Using Other Measuring Devices:
- When properly oriented, the G/VLLD provides direction to the nearest mil.

#### Evaluation Preparation
• Ensure all equipment is available, serviceable, and ready for use.
• Use the reference and evaluation guide to score performance.
• Brief the Soldier on what they are required to do according to task conditions and standards.

#### Performance Measures:
1. Measured direction using one of the five methods.
2. Used the M2 compass to determine direction to two reference points within 60 mils of the actual direction.
3. Expressed direction to the nearest 10 mils.
4. Expressed direction to the nearest 10 mils and within 60 mils of the actual direction.

Procedure:

1. Locate the Big Dipper in the night sky.
2. Identify the last two stars in the cup of the Big Dipper (the ones that form the end of the ladle).
3. Draw an imaginary line between these two stars and extend it about five times the distance between them.
4. The point where this line ends is approximately where the North Star (Polaris) is located.
5. Face Polaris to determine your direction: you are facing North, with East on your right and West on your left.

Notes:
• This method works best on clear nights when the Big Dipper and Polaris are visible.
• The North Star is not visible in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Use this technique only if you are in the Northern Hemisphere.

Procedure:

1. Locate the Southern Cross in the night sky (visible primarily in the Southern Hemisphere).
2. Extend an imaginary line through the long axis of the Southern Cross.
3. Identify the two pointers (Alpha and Beta Centauri) which are part of the constellation Centaurus.
4. Draw another imaginary line that bisects the two pointers at a right angle (perpendicular to the first line).
5. Where these two lines intersect, draw a vertical line downward toward the horizon; this will indicate south (in the Southern Hemisphere) or north (in the Northern Hemisphere), depending on your location.

Notes:
• This method is most effective in clear skies with minimal light pollution.
• It works best when the Southern Cross is high enough above the horizon to be clearly visible.

To determine direction using the watch method without a compass:

1. Hold the watch horizontally: Ensure it is level with the ground.
2. Point the hour hand toward the sun: Align the hour hand so that it points directly at the sun's current position in the sky.
3. Find the midpoint between the hour hand and 12 o'clock: This midpoint will point toward true south (in the Northern Hemisphere). If you are in the Southern Hemisphere, this midpoint will point toward true north.

Important Notes:
• This method works best during daylight hours when the sun is visible.
• It assumes a standard analog watch with hour and minute hands.
• Accuracy may vary depending on your location and time of year.

### Procedure: Determine Direction Within the Target Area

Objective: To determine the direction to selected points within the target area using an object with a known direction, field artillery binoculars, a compass, and a target in the target area.

Equipment Required:
• Field artillery binoculars
• Compass
• Object with a known direction (e.g., a landmark or reference point)
• Target within the target area

**Steps:
1. Identify the object with a known direction that is visible from your position and align it with the compass.
2. Use field artillery binoculars to observe the target in the target area and note its approximate location relative to the object with a known direction.
3. Align the compass with the object of known direction, ensuring that the magnetic needle points north.
4. Determine the azimuth (direction) from your position to the object using the compass scale, which is measured in mils.
5. Estimate the direction to the target by comparing its location relative to the object with a known direction and adjusting the azimuth accordingly.
6. Record the direction to the selected points, expressed to the nearest 10 mils (or within ±60 mils of the actual direction, depending on the required precision).

Notes:
• Ensure that the compass is not near magnetic materials or sources of interference.
• Use the field artillery binoculars for accurate visual identification and estimation of the target's position relative to known landmarks.
• If the object with a known direction is not visible, use other reference points such as celestial bodies (e.g., sun, stars) or topographic features (e.g., rivers, roads).

To determine a North-South line using an established East-West line:

1. Identify the East-West line: Ensure you have already drawn a straight line representing East and West.
2. Draw a perpendicular line at any point on the East-West line: Use a right angle to create a new line that intersects the East-West line at 90 degrees.
3. This new line represents North-South: The direction of this line will be aligned with true north and south.

Important Notes:
• This method is useful for establishing cardinal directions in the absence of a compass.
• Accuracy depends on the precision of your East-West line.

Procedure:

1. Locate north or south using star constellations (e.g., Southern Cross in the Southern Hemisphere or Polaris in the Northern Hemisphere).
2. Draw an imaginary line on the ground to represent the north-south direction.
3. Bisect this line with another line at a right angle (90°) to create an earth compass indicating east and west directions.
4. Identify a bright star or group of stars in the desired direction you wish to travel toward.
5. Face the selected star(s) and begin moving in that direction, keeping them in sight if possible.
6. Be aware that stars move from east to west at 15° per hour, similar to the sun. Adjust your course accordingly as needed.
7. Periodically stop and redraw your earth compass on the ground to verify your direction and ensure you are heading straight toward your destination.

Notes:
• This method is most effective in open, arid regions with a clear view of the sky.
• Avoid using stars that are too close to the horizon as they may be obscured by terrain or lose visibility quickly.

Procedure:

1. Determine direction using the shadow-tip method:
- Place a stick vertically in the ground and mark the tip of its shadow.
- Wait about 15 minutes and mark the new position of the shadow tip.
- Draw a line between the two marks; this line runs East-West, with the first mark being West and the second mark being East.
- The direction perpendicular to this line points North-South.

2. Determine direction using the watch method:
- If you are North of the equator: Point the hour hand at the sun; South will be halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock.
- If you are South of the equator: Point 12 o'clock at the sun; North will be halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock.

3. Determine direction using the North Star method:
- Locate the Big Dipper in the night sky.
- Identify the last two stars in the cup of the Big Dipper and draw an imaginary line between them, extending it five times the distance between those stars.
- The point where this line ends is approximately where Polaris (the North Star) is located. Facing Polaris means you are facing North.

Notes:
• These methods are field-expedient and should be used only when a compass is unavailable.
• Proficiency in all three methods is required for full competency.
• The Southern Cross is the main constellation used as a guide South of the equator, with directions reversed compared to the Northern Hemisphere.

To use a pocket navigator for direction finding:

1. Set up the navigator: Place the tiny rod upright on a flat piece of material so that the sun will cast a shadow. Mark the position where the base of the rod sits to ensure it can be returned to the same spot for later readings.
2. Secure the navigator: Place the pocket navigator flat on level ground and secure it from wind by placing rocks on it. Write down the date and mark the tip of the shadow at this time.
3. Track shadow movement: As the sun moves, observe how the shadow-tip moves. Make repeated shadow-tip markings every 15 minutes. Ensure that you write down the time for each marking.
4. Connect shadow tips: At the end of the day, connect the shadow-tip markings. The result will typically be a curved line. The arch is less pronounced closer to the vernal or autumnal equinoxes (March 20 and September 23).
5. Continue observations if needed: If it's not convenient or the tactical situation does not permit taking a full day’s shadow-tip readings, your observation can be continued on the following day by orienting the pocket navigator on the ground so that the shadow-tip is aligned with a previously plotted point.
6. Determine north-south line: The markings made at the sun's highest point during the day (solar noon) indicate the north–south line. Draw an arrow on the navigator to show the direction of north, using the shortest line from the base of the rod to the shadow-tip curve.
7. Align for use: To use your pocket navigator, hold it so that the shadow-tip is aligned with a plotted point at the specified time (e.g., if it is now 0900, align the shadow-tip with that point). This ensures the navigator is level and oriented to true north.
8. Use for navigation: Once the arrow on the navigator is oriented to true north, you can use it to orient yourself in any desired direction of travel.

Procedure:

1. Understand the parts of the lensatic compass:
- Cover: Protects the floating dial and contains the sighting wire, luminous slots/dots for night navigation.
- Base: Contains the floating dial (with E/W markings), glass with a fixed black index line, bezel ring (120 clicks, 3 degrees per click), and thumb loop.
- Lens: Used to read the dial and contains the rear-sight slot for sighting objects. The rear sight also serves as a lock to clamp the dial when closed.

2. Use the coordinate scale on the compass:
- Newer lensatic compasses have a 1:50,000 scale on the straight edge of the left side.
- Older models may have a 1:25,000 scale (used with 1:50,000 maps but values must be halved).

Important Notes:
• The floating dial has two scales: outer in mils, inner in degrees.
• The bezel ring contains a luminous line used for navigation.
• When using the rear sight, it must be opened more than 45 degrees to allow the dial to float freely.

Procedure:

1. Hold the compass level and steady in your hand.
2. Open the rear sight more than 45 degrees to allow the dial to float freely.
3. Align the front sight with the target object (e.g., a landmark).
4. Look through the rear-sight slot until the target is centered in the notch.
5. Read the azimuth from the inner scale (degrees) or outer scale (mils), depending on which is needed for your task.
6. Use the luminous line on the bezel ring to align with the north-seeking arrow during night navigation.

Important Notes:
• The floating dial always points to magnetic north.
• The letters E and W are at 90 degrees and 270 degrees, respectively.
• Ensure that the compass is not near metal objects or electronic devices that may interfere with its accuracy.

Procedure:

1. Ensure the artillery M2 compass is properly calibrated and free from magnetic interference.
2. Hold the compass level in your hand with the sighting wire aligned with the target object.
3. Use the magnifying lens to read the azimuth more accurately from the dial.
4. Adjust the bezel ring if necessary for precise readings (the M2 compass has a more accurate scale than standard models).
5. Record the measured azimuth in degrees or mils, depending on your mission requirements.

Important Notes:
• The artillery M2 compass is designed for high accuracy and is used primarily by specialized units.
• It should be stored in a protective case when not in use to prevent damage.
• This compass is discussed in detail in Appendix J of the manual.

Procedure:

1. Hold the wrist/pocket compass level and steady in your hand.
2. Ensure that the north-seeking arrow is free to rotate (not obstructed by any metal objects).
3. Wait until the needle settles and points toward magnetic north.
4. Read the direction from the dial in degrees or use the markings on the compass face for approximate directions.

Important Notes:
• The wrist/pocket compass is a small, portable tool with a simple design.
• It contains a north-seeking arrow and a dial in degrees.
• This compass should be used as a backup when more advanced tools are not available.

Using a Compass to Find or Follow an Azimuth

To use your compass effectively, follow these steps:

1. Open the compass: Ensure that the cover forms a straight edge with the base. Move the lens of the compass out of the way.
2. Hold the compass correctly: Place your thumb through the thumb loop. Form a steady base with your third and fourth fingers. Extend your index finger along the side of the compass.
3. Stabilize the compass: Place the thumb of your other hand between the eyepiece and the lens. Extend your index finger along the other side of the compass, and wrap your remaining fingers around the fingers of your other hand.
4. Position the compass: Pull your elbows firmly into your sides to hold the compass between your chin and belt.

To measure an azimuth:
1. Turn your entire body toward the object you want to find or follow.
2. Point the compass cover directly at the object.
3. Look down and read the azimuth from beneath the fixed black index line.
4. This method can be used even at night, especially if your compass has luminous lines and dots for visibility.

Tips for land navigation: Stop occasionally to check the azimuth along which you are moving to avoid going in circles. Move from object to object along your path of travel by shooting an azimuth to each object and then moving to that object. Repeating this process will help keep you on a straight path.