Shelter

Materials Needed:
• Natural materials (e.g., branches, leaves, fabric)
• Rope or other securing material

Procedure:
1. Assess the environment: Determine what type of shelter you need based on local weather conditions and available resources.
2. Choose a location: Select a site that is elevated, away from potential flooding, and protected from wind.
3. Construct the shelter: Use natural materials such as branches for the frame, leaves or fabric for covering, and rope to secure it in place.
4. Ensure insulation and ventilation: Add layers of insulating material (e.g., leaves) if needed for cold weather, and ensure proper ventilation to avoid condensation buildup.
5. Stay inside during extreme conditions: Keep the shelter as a safe haven from heat or cold, minimizing movement during the day in hot climates to prevent dehydration and heat stroke.

Notes:
• A shelter provides protection from elements, insects, animals, and can be a psychological boost for survival.
• In inland arid regions, extreme temperature fluctuations (hot days and cold nights) are common; ensure your shelter is suitable for both conditions.

Objective: Construct a shelter that provides protection from the elements and retains heat.

Requirements for the Shelter:
• Protection from the elements: The shelter should be waterproof, windproof, and insulated from the ground.
• Heat retention: Use materials that trap body heat (e.g., leaves, grass, animal hides).
• Ventilation: Include small openings to allow airflow and prevent condensation buildup.
• Drying facility: Ensure the shelter allows for drying of clothing or gear if needed.
• Free from hazards: Avoid sharp objects, unstable structures, or dangerous materials.
• Shelter stability: The structure should be secure and able to withstand wind and weather conditions.

Steps:
1. Choose a location that is elevated, protected from the wind, and close to water sources.
2. Gather materials such as branches, leaves, grass, and animal hides.
3. Construct a frame using large branches for support and smaller branches for the roof and walls.
4. Cover the frame with layers of leaves, grass, or other insulating materials to provide protection from rain and cold.
5. Ensure there is adequate ventilation by creating small openings in the shelter’s structure.
6. Check that the shelter is stable and free from hazards before using it.

Notes: A well-constructed shelter can significantly increase survival chances in harsh weather conditions.

### Constructing a Shelter Using Poles and Tools

#### Materials Required:
• Poles: Refer to the table below for specific pole lengths, minimum diameters of small ends, number of poles required, and widths when laid on the ground.

|Pole Length|Minimum Diameter<br>of Small End|Number of<br>Poles Required|Widthb|
|---|---|---|---|
|6 ft 2 in.|5 in.|2||
|3 ft I in.|5 in.|12||
|2ft4 in."|5 in.|12||
|10ft 8 in.|5 in.||7 ft|
|8 ft 8 in.|5 in.||7ft|
|10ft 6 in.|4 in.|4||
|7ft 2 in.|4 in.||47 ft|
|5 ft 6 in."|4 in.|12||
|6 ft 10 in.|4 in.||3 ft|
|6 ft 3 in.|4 in.|8||
|2 ft 6 in."|4 in.|16||
|2 ft 3 in.|4 in.|4||
|5 ft 2 in.|3', in.||8 ft|
|3 ft 10 in.|3', in.||36 ft|
|10 fr|2 in.|12||

• Tools: Refer to the table below for specific tools and quantities required.

|Tools|Quantity|
|---|---|
|Ax, long-handle|2|
|Bow-saw, 28-in.|2|
|(or 2-man crosscut saw)|I|
|Pick.|2|
|Shovel, long-handle|3|
|Claw hammer|2|
|File, 10-in.|I|
|Steel tape, IO-ft|I|

#### Steps to Construct a Shelter:
1. Select and Prepare Poles: Based on the table above, select poles of appropriate lengths and diameters. Ensure that all poles are cut to the required lengths using tools such as axes, saws, or shovels.
2. Assemble the Frame:
- Begin by laying out the main room structure. Use ridgepoles, column-posts, footing logs, cross braces, roof poles, and vertical end-wall poles as specified in the table below.

|Use|Pole Length|Minimum Diameterof<br>Small End|Number of<br>Poles<br>Required|Width When All<br>Are Laid on<br>the Groun<f|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|For main room:||||||
|Ridgepole|4 ft 9 in.|6 in.|I|||
|Column-posts|4 ft 3 in.|5 in.|2|||
|Footing log|8 ft 0 in.|6 in.|I|||
|Cross braces|6 ft 2 in.|3 in.|2|||
|Roof poles|9 ft 0 in.|4 in.||5 ft|U|
|Vertical end-wall poles|5 ft 0 in.'|_3'h_ in.||14ft|h|
|Slanting end-wall poles|6 ft 6 in.'|_3'h_ in.||18_ft_|_h_|
|and extras||||||

- For outer sections of entryways, use horizontal poles, cross braces (material for 16), wall poles, and roof poles as specified.

|Use|Pole Length|Minimum Diameterof<br>Small End|Number of<br>Poles<br>Required|Width When All<br>Are Laid on<br>the Groun<f|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|For outer sections of entryways:||||||
|Horizontal. poles|8 ft 0 in.|_3'h_ in.|4|||
|Cross braces (material for 16)|5 ft 0 in.'|_3'h_ in.|6|||
|Wall poles|3 ft 4 in.|3 in.||_32 ft_|_h_|
|Roof poles|2 ft 8 in.|2'/2 in..||_12 ft_|_h_|

- For inner sections of entryways, use long, sloping poles, cross braces, vertical support poles, and roof poles as specified.

|Use|Pole Length|Minimum Diameterof<br>Small End|Number of<br>Poles<br>Required|Width When All<br>Are Laid on<br>the Groun<f|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|For inner sections of entryways:||||||
|Long, sloping poles|14ft 0 in.|4 in.|4|||
|Cross braces|I ft 8 in.'|4 in.|8|||
|Vertical support poles|4 ft Oin.'|4 in.|8|||
|Roof poles|3 ft 0 in.|_2'h_ in.||_13 ft_|_h_|

3. Construct Cribs and Support Structures:
- Use the table below to construct cribs, including sides of longest crib, middle-sized crib, shortest crib, ends of all cribs, vertical poles at corners of all cribs, main roof, and entryway roofs.

|Use|Pole Length|Minimum Diameterof<br>Small End|Number of<br>Poles<br>Required|Width When All<br>Are Laid on<br>the Groun<f|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Sides of longest crib|12~ft|3 in.||7ft|
|Sidesofmiddle-sized|||||
|crib|10 ft|3 in.||7ft|
|Sidesofshortest crib|7ft|3 in.||7ft|
|Endsofall cribs|3~ft|3 in.||2Ift|
|Vertical poles at the|||||
|comersofall cribs|3~ ft|2 in.|56||
|Mainroof|9ft|3~in.||12ft|
|Entrywayroofs|5ft.|2~in.||22 ft|

4. Assemble the Shelter: Secure all poles and components using tools such as hammers, files, and steel tapes. Ensure that the structure is stable and can withstand environmental conditions.
5. Add Finishing Touches: Use additional materials to insulate, protect from weather, and ensure comfort within the shelter.

How to Construct a Field Expedient Lean-To Shelter

Materials Required:
• Two trees or upright poles about 6 feet apart
• One pole about 7 feet long and 1 inch in diameter
• Five to eight poles about 10 feet long and 1 inch in diameter for beams
• Cord or vines for securing
• Saplings or vines for crisscrossing the beams

Steps:
1. Tie the 7-foot pole to two trees at a point about waist-to-chest high. This is your horizontal support. If there's a fork in the tree, rest the pole in it instead of tying it. If no standing tree is available, construct a bipod using Y-shaped sticks or two tripods.
2. Place one end of the beams (10-foot poles) on one side of the horizontal support. Ensure the backside of the lean-to faces into the wind.
3. Crisscross saplings or vines on the beams for added structure.
4. Cover the framework with brush, leaves, pine needles, or grass starting from the bottom and working upward like shingling.
5. Place straw, leaves, pine needles, or grass inside the shelter for bedding.
6. In cold weather, build a fire-reflector wall by driving four 4-foot stakes into the ground to support the wall. Stack green logs between the supports, bind them in place, and fill gaps with twigs or small branches.
7. Create a drying rack by cutting 3/4-inch diameter poles (length depends on distance from lean-to support to fire-reflector wall). Lay one end of the poles on the horizontal support and the other ends on top of the reflector wall. Tie smaller sticks across these poles for hanging items like clothes, meat, or fish.

How to Construct a Poncho Lean-To Shelter

Materials Required:
• One poncho
• 6 to 10 feet of rope
• Three stakes about 6 inches long
• Two trees or two poles 7 to 9 feet apart

Steps:
1. Tie off the hood of the poncho by pulling the draw cord tight, rolling it longways, folding it into thirds, and tying it with the draw cord.
2. Cut the rope in half. On one long side of the poncho, tie half of the rope to one corner grommet and the other half to the other corner grommet.
3. Attach a drip stick (about 4 inches) to each rope 1/4 to 3/4 inches away from the grommet to prevent water from dripping into the shelter.
4. Tie the ropes about waist-high on the trees using a round turn and two half hitches with quick-release knot.
5. Spread the poncho into the wind and anchor it to the ground by putting three sharpened sticks through the grommets and into the ground.
6. If you plan to use the lean-to for more than one night or expect rain, create a center support by stretching a rope between two upright poles or trees in line with the center of the poncho.
7. Tie another rope to the poncho hood; pull it upward so that it lifts the center of the poncho and tie it firmly to the rope stretched between the two uprights.
8. For additional protection from wind and rain, place boughs, brush, your rucksack, or other equipment at the sides of the lean-to.
9. To reduce heat loss to the ground, add insulating material such as leaves or pine needles inside the lean-to (note: up to 80% of body heat can be lost to the ground when resting).
10. Lower the silhouette for security by securing support lines to trees knee-high and using two knee-high sticks in the center grommets, angling the poncho to the ground.

To install collar beams for structural stability:

1. Select appropriate stock: Use a piece of wood such as 1 by 4, 1 by 6, or 1 by 8.
2. Position the beam: Fasten the beam in a horizontal position partway between the top plate and the roof ridge.
3. Secure to rafters: Attach the beam to a pair of rafters.
4. Ensure proper placement: The lower the collar beam or chord, the better it fulfills its purpose by preventing the side walls from spreading.
5. Use in appropriate structures: This type of bracing is typically used in the roofs of small buildings where no ceiling joists are used.

Overview: This guide provides detailed instructions on constructing over fifty different types of shelters, ranging from primitive to fully equipped log cabins.

Steps:
1. Select a Shelter Type: Choose between temporary (e.g., lean-to, tarp shelter) or permanent structures (e.g., log cabin, timber frame).
2. Gather Materials: Use locally available resources such as logs, branches, tarps, and rope.
3. Follow Illustrated Instructions: The book includes full illustrations for each shelter type, ensuring clarity in construction steps.
4. Ensure Stability and Weather Resistance: For permanent shelters, ensure proper foundation, roof pitch, and drainage systems are included.
5. Use as a Guide for Hikes or Encampments: Ideal for outdoor activities where temporary housing is needed.

Notes: This guide is particularly useful for boys interested in building shelters during hikes or encampments.

Materials and Requirements:

Floors are made from almost any material but must resist weathering, wear, and trafficability. The most common material is soil, although it has the least resistance to water damage and rutting from foot and vehicle traffic.

Alternative Materials:
• Wood pallets or other field-available materials are often cut to fit floor areas.

Drainage Considerations:
• Install drainage sumps or drains when possible to prevent water accumulation.

Materials Required:

• 8 pieces of timber, 22 feet long, approximately 5 or 6 inches thick at the base.
• 4 pieces of timber, 6 feet long, approximately 3 or 4 inches thick at the base.
• 12 pieces of timber, 6 feet long, approximately 2½ or 3 inches thick at the base.
• 12 to 15 additional pieces for braces and platform, each about 6 feet long.

Construction Steps:

1. Assemble the Frame:
- Use the specified lengths of timber to construct the main frame of the tower.
- Ensure that all joints are properly aligned before fastening them together.

2. Fasten the Frame:
- The frame can be nailed or spiked, but care must be taken not to split the wood at the points where it is fastened.
- To avoid splitting, drive the nails or spikes several inches back from the ends of each timber piece.

3. Add Braces and Platform:
- Use the additional pieces for braces and platform construction.
- Secure these components to the main frame using appropriate fasteners.

4. Secure the Flagpole or Wireless Pole (if applicable):
- Cut the bottom of the pole wedge-shaped to fit between cross poles.
- Insert the wedge-shaped end into the space between the cross poles, as shown in Fig. 90 _A_.
- Lash the flagpole or wireless pole fast to the _B_ and _A_ pole for additional stability.
- For further reinforcement, nail two additional sticks to the _F_ poles on either side of the flagpole's base, ensuring it is securely held in place.

Safety Considerations:
• Ensure that all components are properly fastened to avoid accidents.
• The flooring of the platform must be securely nailed or lashed in place to prevent falls from a height of about twenty and one half feet.

Purpose: To create a chandelier that can be used to monitor air quality in a shelter.

Materials Needed:
• Candles
• Tin sheets
• Nails or screws

Steps to Construct the Chandelier:
1. Assemble the Structure: Create a simple frame for the chandelier using available materials (as shown in Fig. 159).
2. Attach Candles: Secure candles to the structure, ensuring they are evenly spaced and can burn safely.
3. Install Tin Sheets Above Candles: Nail or screw tin sheets above the candles to protect the roof from heat damage caused by the burning candles.
4. Monitor Air Quality: When the candles burn brightly, it indicates that the air in your shelter is pure and fresh.

Notes: This method provides a simple way to monitor ventilation quality using natural materials.

Materials Needed:
• Half logs or puncheons (A and B)
• Logs for cabin walls (S, S, S)
• Puncheon supporting the mantel (C)
• Mantel board (D)

Steps to Construct the Plank Mantel:
1. Position the Puncheons: Place two half logs or puncheons (A and B) vertically from the floor to the ceiling on each side of the fireplace.
2. Prepare the Cabin Walls: Ensure that the logs forming the cabin walls (S, S, S) are in place and aligned with the fireplace structure.
3. Install the Supporting Puncheon: Position the puncheon (C), which will support the mantel, between the two vertical puncheons (A and B).
4. Cut the Mantel Board: Cut the corners out of the mantel board (D) to fit it around the vertical puncheons (A and B). This is necessary because the puncheons have rounded surfaces.
5. Bevel the Ends of Puncheon C: Bevel the ends of the supporting puncheon (C) so that they will fit snugly on the rounded surfaces of puncheons A and B. Refer to Fig. 277 for a perspective view and profile view of the bevelled end.
6. Final Assembly: Once all components are prepared, place the mantel board (D) between the two vertical puncheons (A and B), ensuring that it is securely supported by the bevelled ends of puncheon C.

Notes:
• This design creates a simple yet appropriate mantelpiece for a log cabin.
• Ensure all cuts are precise to achieve a proper fit.

Procedure:

1. Begin by erecting the front uprights labeled _E_ and _E_, as shown in Fig. 37.
2. Erect two similar uprights at the rear of the structure.
3. Lay the side-plates _G_ into the forks of the uprights.
4. Erect the upright _H_ and a corresponding one at the rear, then place the ridge-pole across them.
5. Place a couple of logs at the base of the front uprights (_E_) or further back if more space is needed for roof poles _F_.
6. Stack one log on top of another as shown in Figs. 36 and 39, securing them with sticks driven into each side.
7. Add two more logs to the opposite side of the Pontiac.
8. Lay your roof poles or rafters against the side-plates and over the logs, as illustrated in diagrams 36, 37, and 39.
9. Partially shingle the roof and cover the sides as shown in Fig. 36 to complete the structure.

Purpose: To create a trap-door in the roof for secret access to a shelter.

Materials Needed:
• Roof structure
• Ladder (see Figs. 169 and 170)

Steps to Create the Trap-Door:
1. Cut an Opening in the Roof: Carefully cut out a section of the roof where the trap-door will be installed.
2. Install the Trap-Door: Fit the trap-door into the opening, ensuring it is secure and can be opened from inside the shelter.
3. Add a Ladder for Access: Install a ladder as shown in Figs. 169 and 170 to allow access through the trap-door.

Notes: This method provides a hidden entrance that can be used for emergencies or secret meetings.

Objective: Create practical and ornamental gateways suitable for log houses, game preserves, ranches, country estates, and Boy Scouts' camps.

Design Principles:
• Avoid Over-Ornamentation: While the gateways can be decorative (as shown in Figs. 323–326), they should remain practical and not overly intricate to ensure functionality and durability.
• Material Consistency: Ensure that the materials used for the gateway match those of the surrounding structure, whether it is a log house or modern mansion, to maintain aesthetic harmony.

Implementation Steps:
1. Assess Purpose and Location: Determine the specific use (e.g., game preserve, Boy Scouts' camp) and location of the gateway to guide design choices.
2. Select Appropriate Materials: Use rustic materials that align with the overall structure's appearance while ensuring strength and durability.
3. Design for Functionality: Incorporate elements such as hinges, latches, or locks where necessary, keeping them simple and effective.
4. Add Ornamental Details (Optional): Add decorative features like carvings or patterns, but ensure they do not compromise the gateway's practicality.
5. Install the Gateway: Mount the gateway securely within the enclosure, ensuring it is level and properly aligned with the surrounding structure.

Notes: The text emphasizes that rustic gateways should balance aesthetics with utility, avoiding excessive ornamentation to maintain their appropriateness for the intended use.

Purpose: Roofs are designed to support earth cover for shielding from fragments and small caliber direct fire.

Material Requirements:
• Constructed of almost any material used as beams or stringers and sheathing.

Guidelines:
• Tables provide guidelines for wooden roof structures (for fragment shielding only).
• A third table converts dimensions to round timber.
• Additional tables pertain to maximum span of steel pickets and landing mats for roof supports (for fragment shielding only).

Additional Protection Requirements:
• When designed to defeat contact bursts of high explosive projectiles, substantial additional roof protection is required.

Design Criteria: A table provides basic design criteria for a roof.

Reference Material: Appendix B describes a procedure for overhead cover design to defeat contact burst of high explosive projectiles.

Limitations:
• Provide limited protection from direct fire while the occupant is firing a weapon due to negligible frontal and side protection.
• Offer relatively no protection from fragments from overhead bursts of artillery shells. The larger the excavation, the less the protection.
• Provide limited protection from chemical effects, with chemicals sometimes concentrating in low holes and excavations.

Purpose: To install and conceal a ventilator in a shelter.

Materials Needed:
• Ventilator pipe
• Dry brush or shrubs
• Slats or wire netting (1/4-inch mesh)

Steps to Install the Ventilator:
1. Install the Ventilator Pipe: Place the ventilator pipe through the ground and ensure it is positioned for proper ventilation.
2. Conceal with Vegetation: Surround the ventilator with dry brush or plant weeds and shrubs around it to hide the pipe from view.
3. Protect the Top of the Ventilator: Cover the top of the ventilator with slats (as shown in Fig. 161) or wire netting with a mesh size of about one-quarter inch to prevent small animals from entering.

Notes: This method ensures that ventilation is maintained while keeping the structure discreet and safe from unwanted animal intrusion.

Purpose: To learn how to use an axe safely and effectively for log construction.

Materials Needed:
• Axe
• Logs
• Safety gear (gloves, eye protection)

Steps to Learn Axe Usage:
1. Practice Proper Stance: Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart, holding the axe firmly with both hands.
2. Learn Basic Cuts: Practice making straight cuts and notches in logs as shown in Fig. 157 _C_.
3. Use Controlled Movements: Make sure to swing the axe with controlled movements to avoid injury or damage to surrounding structures.
4. Inspect Your Work: Check your cuts for accuracy and ensure that they are suitable for use in log construction.

Notes: This skill is essential for building shelters, cabins, and other wooden structures. It is important to practice safely and under supervision until you gain confidence.

To square building lines using the 3-4-5 triangle method:

1. Measure AF: Measure a distance of 3 feet (or multiples such as 6, 9, or 12 feet) from point A to point F.
2. Measure AG: From point A, measure a distance of 4 feet (or corresponding multiple: 8, 12, or 16 feet depending on AF length).
3. Check FG: Ensure that the distance between points F and G is equal to 5 feet (or multiples such as 10, 15, or 20 feet) based on the previous measurements.
4. Adjust wires: Move the wires until FG equals the correct measurement for a right triangle (3-4-5 ratio).

Note: This method ensures that all corners are square by forming a perfect right angle at point A.

Corner posts are structural elements used at the corners of frame structures and are built from two or more ordinary studs or other dimension stock to provide strength and additional nailing surfaces. Follow these steps:

1. Prepare materials: Select appropriate lumber based on wall thickness.
2. Assemble corner post types:
- Type 1 (4-inch wall): Use a 4x6 with a 2x4 nailed on the broad side, flush with one edge.
- Type 2 (thicker walls): Use a 4x4 with 2x4's nailed to two of the adjoining sides.
- Type 3: Nail two 2x4's together with blocks between them and another 2x4 nailed flush with one edge.
- Type 4 (TO construction): Nail a 2x4 to the edge of another 2x4, with the edge of one flush with the side of the other.
3. Install corner posts: After the sill and first-floor joists are in place, cover the first floor roughly for working surface. Set up corner posts plumbed and temporarily brace them.

Materials Needed:
• Upright logs
• Cross log (with holes)
• Birdhouses or shelters for swallows, bluebirds, woodpeckers, etc.

Steps:
1. Build the Gate Posts:
- Use two upright logs as gate posts.
2. Add a Cross Log Overhead:
- Place a cross log overhead and excavate holes in it for birds such as white-breasted swallows, bluebirds, woodpeckers, or flickers.
3. Carving Details (Optional):
- For a more picturesque form of gateway, carve the ends of the cross log after the fashion of totem-poles.
4. Replace with Stone Wall:
- In place of a wooden fence, use a stone wall for added durability and aesthetic appeal.

Additional Notes:
• Ensure that the gate posts are treated with creosote if embedded in the ground to prevent decay.
• Always include birdhouses or shelters in every gateway design.

Materials Needed:
• Bevelled logs (_A_)
• Diagonally set logs (_B_ and _C_)
• Crosspieces of board
• Hardware (spikes, pegs)

Steps:
1. Prepare the Logs:
- Use bevelled logs (_A_) to fit in diagonally for the fence structure.
2. Set Diagonal Logs:
- Set _B_ and _C_ logs as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 332, ensuring they are properly aligned with the bevelled logs.
3. Secure Crosspieces:
- Use crosspieces of board to fasten the structure together horizontally from log to post.
4. Ensure Stability and Aesthetics:
- This fence design is suitable for a permanent camp, whether it be a Boy Scout, Girl Pioneer, or private estate entrance.

Additional Notes:
• The logs should be treated with creosote if embedded in the ground to prevent decay.
• Ensure that all connections are secure and that the structure is both functional and aesthetically pleasing.

Materials Needed:
• Logs for the structure
• Ridgepole (plank cut 'sway-backed')
• Hand-rived or hand-trimmed shingles
• Crosspieces of board
• Hardware (spikes, pegs)

Steps:
1. Build the Framework:
- Construct a framework for the roof with a ridgepole that is cut 'sway-backed'—lower in the centre than at either end.
2. Roof the Gateway:
- Use hand-rived or hand-trimmed shingles to cover the roof, ensuring they are properly secured.
3. Construct the Logs:
- Lay up logs for the structure and construct the roof as previously learned in earlier chapters of the book.
4. Ensure Horizontal Alignment:
- When placing the first overhead log at the top of the open way, ensure it is exactly horizontal and level to carry out the plan in a workmanlike manner.

Additional Notes:
• This gateway is appropriate for common post-and-rail fences or any of the log fences illustrated in previous diagrams.
• The framework should be sturdy enough to support the weight of the roof and withstand weather conditions.

Materials Needed:
• Upright logs
• Planks for roof protection
• Flattened logs (for rafters)
• Bird-house or bird shelter
• Creosote (for decay prevention)
• Small stones and one large stone
• Crosspieces of board
• Hardware (spikes, pegs)

Steps:
1. Build the Gate Posts:
- Use upright logs for gate posts.
- Ensure the bevelled tops of the logs are protected by planks acting as a roof.
2. Add Flattened Logs for Rafters:
- In place of a plank, use two flattened logs spiked on like rafters to a roof.
3. Install Birdhouse:
- Surmount the apex of the roof with a bird-house or shelter.
4. Embed Posts in Ground:
- Embed the ends of the logs into the earth and treat them with 2-3 coats of creosote to prevent decay.
5. Drainage Setup:
- Place the short gate-post on several small stones with air spaces between them.
- Allow the pointed ends of upright logs to rest on one large stone.
6. Secure Crosspieces:
- Fasten crosspieces of board horizontally from log to post, enclosing them inside the stone pier for concealment.
7. Ensure Drainage:
- This arrangement allows all water to drain from the wood, keeping it dry and preventing decay.

Additional Notes:
• Always add a bird-house or shelter to every gateway; it is more important than the gate itself.
• Use hardwood pegs or spikes to secure parts together if using tree trunks as part of the structure.

Materials Needed:
• Half-round piece of hardwood
• Square end of a knob
• Small screw
• Simple wooden latch with catch and guard

Steps to Construct the Wooden Latch:
1. Cut the Hardwood Piece: Cut a half-round piece of hardwood (labeled as _F_ in Fig. 312) to fit upon the square end _G_ of the knob, as shown in Figs. 311 and 313.
2. Secure with a Screw: Hold the half-round piece in place using a small screw, as depicted in Fig. 314.
3. Install on the Door: Mount this arrangement on the door and position the knob as shown in Figs. 315 and 316.
4. Attach the Latch: Fasten a simple wooden latch (Fig. 317) with the catch _K_ (Fig. 319) and guard (Fig. 320) on the den side of the door, as indicated by _K_, _L_ in Fig. 317.
5. Functionality Check: When the door is latched, ensure that the wooden piece _F_ fits underneath the latch, as shown in Fig. 317. Turning the knob should rotate the half disk and lift the latch _H_ (Fig. 318), allowing the door to open.

Notes: This latch mechanism is designed for a rustic or pioneer-style log cabin and can be used to create a surprise den within a modern home, as described in the text.

Materials Required:
• Planks from sawmill or spruce logs
• Birch for battens (A, B, C)
• Birch sticks for hinges
• Board for battens
• Nail for latch and spring
• Yellow birch for handle
• Tin or sheet iron for protecting bolt holes

Steps to Construct the Door and Latch:
1. Prepare the Door: Use planks from a sawmill or split spruce logs as the door.
2. Create Battens (A, B, C): Make battens from birch or any available material. The batten _B_ should be in two pieces: the top piece serves as a brace for the spring and the bottom piece supports the bolt.
3. Make Hinges: Use birch sticks whittled at the top to leave a peg that fits into a hole in the flattened end of horizontal battens (A and C).
4. Install the Spring: Fasten the spring with a nail to the door so its thin end rests on the top of the bolt, bending it enough to hold the bolt down in the catch.
5. Create the Thumb-Latch: Whittle the thumb-latch into the shape shown and fasten it in a slot cut in the door using a nail driven through the edge of the door and through a hole in the thumb-latch.
6. Install the Bolt: The bolt should work freely on a nail at the left-hand end and rest in the catch on the door-jamb. Ensure the notch in the guard is long enough to allow free play up and down for the bolt.
7. Fit the Guard: Place the guard over the bolt so it keeps it in place.
8. Install the Handle: Use yellow birch bent in hot water to make a handle, replacing a door-knob.

Additional Details:
• The battens may be made from a piece of board if needed.
• The thumb-latch works up and down on the nail it is fastened to.
• Pressing down the thumb-latch on the outside lifts it up on the inside, raising the bolt and unfastening the door.

Materials Needed:
• A forked branch
• Nails
• A rod (stick)

Steps to Construct the Hinge:
1. Split the Forked Branch: Take a forked branch and split it into two pieces.
2. Attach to Door-Jambs: Nail these two pieces to the sides of the door-jambs as shown in Fig. 157 _A_.
3. Insert Rod Through Pieces: Run a rod (stick) through the two split pieces, ensuring that the round ends of the rod fit into the openings.
4. Flatten the Middle of the Rod: Flatten the middle portion of the rod to fit on the surface of the door to which it will be nailed.
5. Secure the Rod: Nail the flattened end of the rod onto the door surface as shown in Fig. 157 _B_.

Notes: This hinge was invented by Scout Victor Aures and is described with diagrams sent by the inventor to his chief.

Materials Required:
• Tin or sheet iron
• Nails
• Wood for door-sill and door-jamb

Steps to Construct the Deming Twin Lock:
1. Drill Holes: Drill holes in the door-sill (for the Hall bolt) and in the door-jamb above the door (for the Billy bolt).
2. Protect Wood with Metal: Cover the holes on the surface of the wood with pieces of tin or sheet iron that have corresponding holes cut to allow the bolts to pass through.
3. Secure Tin Covers: Tack the tin covers over the bolt-holes in the sill for the Hall bolt and over the bolt-hole overhead for the Billy bolt. This prevents splitting away of the wood around the holes.
4. Insert Bolts: Insert the lower (Hall) bolt into the hole in the door-sill, and the upper (Billy) bolt into the hole in the door-jamb above the door.

Additional Details:
• The Hall bolt is shot into a hole in the door-sill.
• The Billy bolt is shot into a hole in the door-jamb above the door.
• The use of tin or sheet iron ensures that the wood remains intact and does not split around the holes.

Materials Needed:
• A log (preferably elongated)
• Sawbuck arrangement
• Chalk
• Carving tools
• Paint (red, blue, yellow)

Steps to Construct a Totem-Pole:
1. Prepare the Log: Place the log on an elongated sawbuck arrangement, ensuring it is elevated and free from the ground for easy turning during carving.
2. Sketch Design: Use chalk to sketch the various figures (as shown in Figs. 256 or 262) onto the log's surface.
3. Notching the Log: Begin by making notches on the log according to the design, as illustrated in Fig. 258.
4. Carving Figures: Proceed with carving out the figures based on the sketches and notches (refer to Figs. 260, 261, and 262 for different views of the same totem figures).
5. Variation Option: If desired, create a variation of the totem-pole as shown in Fig. 257.
6. Painting: Paint the finished totem heads and figures using red, blue, and yellow paint. Use bold colors for greater visual impact; the weather will naturally tone them down over time.

Notes:
• The process is suitable for older boys or experienced individuals who can guide others (e.g., fathers, uncles, or older brothers) in the heavy work.
• A completed totem-pole will resemble a typically native building, blending harmoniously into its landscape and appearing as if it belongs there.

To arrange logs evenly and avoid uneven height in log cabins:

1. Alternate the placement of logs so that thick ends and small ends are placed alternately on opposite sides.
2. For example, if you place the thick end of a log at the right-hand side of your house with the small end at the left, place the next log with the small end at the right and thick end at the left.
3. Avoid placing all thick ends on one side and small ends on the other to prevent the house from being taller at one end than the other (as shown in Figs. 190, 191, and 192).

To build a steep roof for log cabins:

1. Use milled lumber for the roof and erect the rafters at the gable end first, with the ridge board as shown in Fig. 263 and in greater detail in Fig. 49.
2. Space the other rafters two or three feet apart.
3. Ensure that the roof overhangs the walls by at least seven to eight inches to keep the drip from the rain free of the wall.
4. Remember that a steeper roof will extend the life of shingles because water runs off more quickly, and snow slides off easily, reducing damage from driving rains.

Objective: Build a notched log ladder to use for climbing or accessing elevated areas.

Materials Needed:
• A single sturdy log (preferably straight and uniform in diameter)
• An axe or sharp cutting tool

Procedure:
1. Select a suitable log, ensuring it is strong enough to support weight and has no significant knots or weaknesses.
2. Mark the notches on both sides of the log at regular intervals (e.g., every 6–8 inches), depending on the desired step height.
3. Carve the notches using an axe or sharp tool, ensuring they are deep enough to provide a secure grip and stable foothold.
4. Test the ladder by standing on it with your hands gripping the log and placing one foot on each side of the notched sections.
5. Use the ladder for climbing, such as ascending a mountain trail or accessing a loft in a cabin, as described in historical examples.

Notes:
• This method was historically used by pioneers to access upper levels of cabins or climb steep terrain.
• Ensure that the log is securely placed and stable before use to prevent accidents.

To construct the gable ends of a log cabin:

1. Use logs to build up the gable ends, with rafters running between them as shown in Figs. 229 and 233.
2. If using mill lumber for the roof, frame it as shown in Figs. 49, 51, and fill the gable end above the logs with upright poles (Figs. 173 and 247), or planks (Fig. 241), or board up and cover with tar paper (Fig. 248).
3. Alternatively, shingle the gable end with ordinary shingles (Fig. 79).

To fill gaps between logs in a log cabin:

1. If logs are uneven and leave large spaces between them, use mud plaster or cement to fill the spaces.
2. Insert quartered pieces of small logs into the gaps and nail or spike them in place.
3. If using straight spruce logs that fit snugly, fill cracks with swamp moss (Sphagnum), oakum (like a boat), or flat stones covered with mud.
4. Mud used for filling gaps can last from one to seven or eight years; some examples have lasted even longer.

To square the corners of your log cabin, follow these steps:

Materials Needed:
• A ten-foot pole made from a straight piece of wood.
• Two logs to be joined at a corner (labeled as _C_ and _G_ for one log, and _C_ and _A_ for the other log).

Steps to Square the Corner:
1. Measure six feet on the first log from point _C_ to point _O_, marking it clearly.
2. Measure eight feet on the second log from point _C_ to point _N_, marking it clearly.
3. Use your ten-foot pole to check if the distance between points _O_ and _N_ is exactly ten feet:
- If the tips of the pole touch both marks perfectly, the corner is square.
- If not, adjust the logs until the distance from _O_ to _N_ is exactly ten feet.
4. Repeat this process for the other corner at point _H_ to ensure all corners are squared.

Materials needed: Creosote, oil, brush.

Steps:
1. Choose preservative: Apply two or three coats of creosote before laying logs on the ground for maximum protection against decay.
2. Alternative options: If creosote is unavailable, use warm oil with a brush. This is more accessible for ordinary users but less effective than creosote.
3. Other preservatives: Linseed-oil and white-lead paint are also viable but not as effective or cost-efficient as creosote.
4. Commercial options: Carbolineum and other patent preparations are recommended but are more expensive than creosote.
5. Cost considerations: Creosote can be purchased in large or small quantities from companies like the Barret Manufacturing Company (New York City) or Chattfield Manufacturing Company (Carthage, O.).

Objective: Create a miniature log cabin model to plan the layout of a larger structure.

Materials Needed:
• Small sticks (about one inch in diameter)
• A sharp jack-knife
• Ground space for building

Procedure:
1. Study diagrams of log cabins to understand their structure and layout.
2. Gather materials, including small sticks that are slightly less than one inch in diameter, and a sharp jack-knife.
3. Construct the model on the ground with the following dimensions:
- Length: 1 foot 3 inches
- Width: 10 inches
4. Use the sticks to represent logs, ensuring they are slightly less than one inch in diameter (one inch through or thick).
5. Experiment with layout, placing elements such as rooms, fireplaces, windows, and doors based on your plans.
6. Review the model to visualize how the larger cabin will be divided into functional spaces.

Notes:
• This method allows you to make adjustments before constructing the full-scale version.
• You can vary dimensions according to your specific plan if needed.

Procedure:

1. Design Layout: Construct a two-pen house by extending logs of the main wall sufficiently to create an additional room or pen.
2. Install Shed Roof on Division: Place a shed roof made of boards over the division between the two pens for added protection and functionality.
3. Construct Main Roof with Log Tiles: Use logs in the form of tiles (called _les auges_ in Canada) to build the main roof. Ensure this design allows for proper water runoff.
4. Steeper Back Roof: Make the back roof steeper than the front roof to ensure rain does not enter at the ends of the wooden troughs (_les auges_). The back roof should extend above the ends of _les auges_ for added protection.
5. Cover Front Addition with Shakes: On the front side of the small room or addition, cover the area with shakes as illustrated in Fig. 239.
6. Add Stove and Ventilation: In the cabin, install a cooking-stove inside for heating purposes. Ensure the stovepipe protrudes above the roof to allow proper ventilation and prevent smoke buildup.

To seal cracks between logs in a log cabin:

Materials Needed:
• Small pieces of timber (labeled _Y_ and _W_ in Fig. 168½).
• Spikes.

Steps for Chinking:
1. Insert quartered pieces of timber into the cracks between logs.
2. Secure these pieces with spikes to hold them in place.
3. This process is called "chinking the cabin."

Alternative Methods for Sealing Cracks:
• Use clay or ordinary lime mortar on the inside of the cabin to "mud" up the cracks and prevent cold and wind from entering.

Materials needed: Logs, skid, two-handed saw, boy helpers.

Steps:
1. Transport logs to site: Snake your logs to a skid near the site of your proposed cabin (Fig. 167), from which you can roll your logs to your house as needed.
2. Lay out and square corners: Lay out the corners and ensure they are squared (Fig. 180).
3. Notch logs: Notch the logs with a rounded or U-shaped notch (Fig. 165). Ensure that all notches are spaced evenly to create even walls.
4. Log length considerations: All logs should be two or three feet longer than the walls of the proposed building. The protruding ends may be irregular until the cabin is erected.
5. Trim logs after erection: Once the cabin is erected, use a two-handed saw with a boy at each end to trim off the protruding ends evenly for a neat finish.

Overview

To construct a common Canadian log house, follow these steps:

1. Use perspective drawings (Figs. 242 and 243) to visualize the structure of the cabin, referred to as the Kanuck.
2. Build the pen exactly as described in previously detailed house constructions.
3. Place windows and doorways: These can be positioned according to the builder's preference.
4. Install side-plate logs: Once these are in place, proceed with the following steps:

- Lay the traverse logs (B, B, B, B, Fig. 244) across the pen from one side-plate to the other. Their ends should rest on top of the side-plates over the traverse logs.
- The two purlins are notched and fitted into place.
- Fit the pieces D, D over the ends of the purlins.
- Place the ridge log (E, Fig. 244) resting on the centers of the D logs.

5. Construct the roof: The roof is made from small logs that are either flattened on the under-side or left in their rounded form (Fig. 242). These logs are laid from the ridge logs down and should extend over the eaves by six or more inches.
6. Secure the roof logs: Use poles pegged with wooden pegs to hold the roof logs in place (F, G, Fig. 242).

Notes:
• The construction method is based on traditional Canadian log house designs.
• Ensure that all notches and fittings are properly aligned for structural integrity.

### Constructing a Hunter's or Fisherman's Cabin

Overview:
A hunter's or fisherman's cabin can be built in hilly or mountainous regions using available materials. The design should adapt to the specific location and needs of the builder.

Steps:
1. Choose the Location:
- Select a spot on forested or waste land that is ideal for summer camps, fishing, or outdoor activities.
2. Design the Cabin:
- Use logs as the primary building material. The design can vary based on available materials and the terrain.
3. Extend the Roof Rafters:
- Extend the rafters of the roof to create a piazza in front, which can be floored with puncheons (split wooden planks).
4. Construct Protective Walls/Fences:
- Allow logs forming the sides of the house to extend outward to form walls or fences.
- This helps prevent accidents such as falling off cliffs or into lakes.
5. Create Enclosures for Storage:
- Extend logs on one side to create a shield that can conceal a wood-yard or protect an enclosure for storing camp utensils.
6. Adapt the Design to the Location:
- Modify the cabin's structure based on the specific requirements of its location (e.g., extend logs up to the roof for wind and storm protection).
7. Install Windows and Doors:
- Use small windows since most work is done outdoors.
- In areas with blackflies or mosquitoes, use mosquito-netting over windows and doorways to keep insects out.

Notes:
• The Frontispiece provides visual examples of cabin designs that can be adapted but should not be copied exactly.
• Every location has unique requirements, so the design must conform to its specific conditions.

Materials Required:
• Logs (preferably uniform in size)
• Roofing material
• Chimney materials (brick, stone, etc.)
• Tools for cutting and assembling logs
• Nails or wooden pegs for joining logs

Steps to Build the Southern Saddle-Bag Cabin:
1. Choose the Layout:
- Decide on the size of each room: either two rooms that are 10 by 10 feet with a gallery six feet wide, or two rooms that are 6 by 6 feet with a gallery five feet wide.

2. Lay the Foundation:
- Clear and level the ground where the cabin will be built.
- Mark out the dimensions of each room and the gallery on the ground using stakes and string.

3. Construct the Walls:
- Begin by laying the logs for the walls, starting with the base and working upward.
- Use wooden pegs or nails to join the logs together securely at each joint.
- Ensure that the walls are plumb and square as you build them up.

4. Build the Gallery:
- Construct an open-air gallery between the two rooms, extending from the front of the house to the back.
- The gallery should be wide enough (either five or six feet) to allow for comfortable movement and use during warm weather.

5. Construct the Roof:
- Build a roof that extends over the open gallery between the two rooms, creating a covered area for lounging, dining, or other activities.
- Use sturdy materials such as wooden beams or rafters to support the roof structure.

6. Install Chimneys:
- Place chimneys at the gable ends of the house (on the outside of the building).
- Ensure that the fireplaces are broad but not overly deep, suitable for the Southern climate.

7. Add Interior Features:
- Include a fireplace in each room if desired, with appropriate chimney connections.
- Add flooring and interior walls as needed to complete the living space.

Notes and Considerations:
• This type of cabin is ideal for summer use even in Northern States like Michigan or parts of New York but may require additional insulation or snow barriers during winter months.
• The open gallery serves multiple purposes, including lounging, sewing, and dining outdoors during warm weather.
• This design is well-suited for the Southern United States and can be comfortably used as far north as Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.

Overview: This procedure outlines how to construct a two-story log house using traditional backwoods techniques with minimal tools and resources, as described by the author of *Shelters, Shacks, and Shanties*.

Materials Needed:
• Logs (cut from trees in the surrounding area)
• Axes, saws, and other basic carpentry tools
• Boards for shutters and interior finishing
• Nails or iron pins for fastening
• Rope or chains for lifting logs

Steps:
1. Select a Site: Choose a location that is accessible but also secluded enough to enjoy the wilderness. The author chose Big Tink Pond in Pike County, Pa.
2. Design the House: Use a pocket knife to sketch out rough plans on the ground or on paper. The house described was a modification of the Southern "saddle-bag" cabin—two houses under one roof.
3. Cut and Prepare Logs:
- Cut logs from trees in the surrounding area, ensuring they are straight and uniform in size where possible.
- Use an axe or saw to shape the logs as needed for walls, floors, and ceilings.
4. Lay the Foundation: Begin by laying out the first floor on level ground. The author used a simple layout without precise measurements, relying on instinct and experience.
5. Construct the Walls:
- Stack logs horizontally to form the walls of the house, ensuring each log is tightly fitted against the one before it.
- Use rope or chains to lift and position larger logs into place.
6. Build the Second Story: Once the first floor is complete, construct the second story using similar techniques. The author used the protruding logs ("A" logs) as a basis for creating a balcony over the gallery.
7. Add Interior Features:
- Construct stairs after the main structure is in place. The author did not plan for stairs initially and added them once the house was partially built.
- Create rooms by dividing the space with additional logs or boards, as needed.
8. Install Shutters and Doors: After construction is complete, install shutters to protect windows from animals and weather. The author used a movable sill that could be slid up against the bottom of the shutters and fastened in place using iron pins let into holes bored for this purpose.
9. Finish the Interior: Add flooring, furniture, and other interior features as desired. The author used logs and boards from nearby trees to create cribs, tables, and other furnishings.

Notes:
• This method relies heavily on manual labor and improvisation rather than modern tools or blueprints.
• The house described was built with the help of backwoods farmers who had no formal training in construction but had practical experience.
• The author made many mistakes during the process, but learned from them and continued to improve the structure over time.

Procedure:

1. Prepare Logs and Shakes: Use logs for the first story, ensuring they extend to the ceiling height or half-story level as needed.
2. Install Shakes on First Story: Cover the first story's roof with shakes (previously illustrated in Figs. 127-130). Ensure proper overlap and joint breaking as shown in illustrations.
3. Support for Second Story Logs: During winter, use logs to support the front of the second story to prevent snow load from damaging the structure.
4. Remove Winter Supports in Summer: In summer, remove these supporting logs and set them aside, leaving the overhang unsupported in front.
5. Install Shakes on Sides: Apply shakes on the sides similarly to shingles, overlapping each other and breaking joints as illustrated. Nail them securely to side poles, allowing ends of the poles to protrude slightly (as shown in Fig. 238).

Materials Required: Logs, bark, moss, forked sticks, poles, and green fir logs.

Steps to Build the New Brunswick Shelter:
1. Lay out the foundation: Create a plan on the ground that is approximately six feet by twelve feet. Ensure the back logs are over six feet long to allow for six feet of clear space inside.
2. Notch the back logs: Use plain, rounded notches (as shown in Fig. 165) on about four or five back logs.
3. Erect side sill logs and upright forked sticks: Place the side sill logs and set up two upright forked sticks at the front of your cabin to hold a cross stick that supports the roof rafter.
4. Build the cabin structure: Construct the cabin as you would a log house, notching only the small ends of the side logs and reserving the larger ends for the front. Fill in gaps between logs with smaller pieces of wood or shaped logs to make the front higher than the rear.
5. Chink the logs: When the logs meet the rafter pole, fill all cracks with small pieces of wood and seal crevices with moss.
6. Install the roof: Cover the roof with bark, shingled as described for the Pontiac (illustrated in Figs. 36 and 190 _A_). Secure the bark by laying sticks or poles over it to weigh it down, as shown in Fig. 190 _A_.
7. Build the wind-shield: Use green logs from fir-trees if available. Split them in half using one of the methods shown in Fig. 119. Leave enough room for a passageway and erect the wind-shield, resting it against a pole laid between two forked sticks.
8. Orient the wind-shield: Ensure the green, split side of the log faces the camp and the bark side faces outdoors to prevent the shield from burning easily when the campfire is built nearby.
9. Save good-burning wood: Reserve woods that burn well for use in your fire, while using those that do not burn readily for the wind-shield.

Materials Needed: Logs, notches, wedges, and tools for cutting and shaping logs.

Steps to Construct the Wyoming Olebo Shelter:
1. Begin by laying down the two side sill logs (_A_ and _B_) and the additional side sill logs (_C_ and _D_), as shown in Fig. 236.
2. Next, place the two end logs (_E_ and _F_) along with the remaining side logs (_D_ and _B_) to form the base structure of the cabin.
3. Continue building the walls using logs, allowing the irregular ends of the logs to extend beyond the cabin until the pen is completed and ready for the roof.
4. Once the walls are built, erect log columns at positions _A_ and _C_ (Fig. 236). Cut the tops of these columns into a wedge shape to fit into notches in the ends of the projecting side-plates (as shown in Fig. 144, _A_ and _B_).
5. Lay the end plate (_G_, Fig. 236) over the two top logs on the sides of your house, ensuring it corresponds to the side-plates of an ordinary house.
6. Notch the end plate (_G_) to fit on top of the side-plates and ensure that the tops of the side-plates have been scored and hewn to create a General Putnam joint (as shown in Fig. 236).
7. Allow the ends of the side logs of the cabin to protrude a foot or more beyond the others, providing room for the supporting upright log columns at _A_ and _C_ (see view of cabin, Fig. 236 and front view, Fig. 237).
8. Add two additional upright columns (_H_ and _J_, Fig. 237) to support the end plate. The end plate supports the short uprights upon which the purlins _L_ and _M_ rest.
9. Place the other purlins (_K_ and _N_) directly on top of the end plate (Fig. 237).
10. Complete the rear end of the cabin by either logging up the gable as shown in Fig. 240 or filling it in with uprights as depicted in Fig. 247.
11. Construct the roof using logs, but if the shelter will not be subjected to heavy snowfall during winter, use any material that is readily available and suitable for roofing.

Notes: The Wyoming Olebo can be built to any size permitted by the logs and dictated by personal taste. Ensure all joints are properly secured with wedges or notches as described.

Procedure for Creating Openings (Doors, Windows, Fireplaces):

1. Build the structure as if it has no openings.
2. When you reach the point where an opening is needed:
- Saw out a section of the log to mark the location and allow access for finishing the opening later.
3. Continue building until enough logs are in place to attach cleats (as shown in Figs. 229, 230, and 231).
4. Once cleats are in place:
- Saw out the openings as indicated in the diagram.
5. The cleats will hold the ends of the logs temporarily until:
- Nail boards (U) to the ends of the logs for door-jambs, window-frames, or fireplace framework, securing them permanently in place.

Procedure for Creating a Board Floor Using Floor-Joists:

1. Use milled lumber or straight logs from the structure itself as floor-joists.
2. Ensure the logs have an even top surface by:
- Scoring and hewing them, as illustrated in Figs. 123, 124, and 125 (previously described).
3. Cut the ends of the joists square and smaller than the rest of the log (as shown in Fig. A, 229).
4. Make sure the square ends fit easily into notches cut into the sill logs (Fig. B, 229), ensuring evenness.
5. Once installed, the flooring (Fig. C, 229) can be placed on top of the joists.
6. For a house ten feet wide, use logs with a diameter of half a foot (from one side to the other);
- For larger spans, use larger logs for the joists.

Procedure for Building a Foundation for Log Cabins:

1. If your house is not a "mudsill":
- Rest the sill logs on posts or stone piles.
2. In the Northern States, ensure that these supports:
- Extend three feet below ground level, to be below the frost line.
3. This prevents the spring thaw from uplifting the structure, causing it to "come out of plumb."

Procedure:

1. Erect the ridge-pole first.
2. Set up the ridge-pole on two uprights and temporarily nail it in place.
3. Use diagonal props or braces to hold the upright supports in place, as shown in Fig. 263.
4. If using squared logs, cut a small bird's-mouth notch in the rafter where it extends over the sideplate logs of the pen.
5. Bevel the top end of your gable rafters to fit against the ridge-pole, as illustrated in diagrams.
6. For round logs, notch the rafters and side-plates as shown between Figs. 263 and 267; dotted lines indicate where the rafter and logs come together.
7. Nail your rafters to the ridge-pole and fasten them to the side-plate with wooden pegs or spikes.
8. Allow the ridgepole to extend on each side of the cabin, or attach elbows (Fig. 266) to each end of the ridge-pole with noses turned up and painted or carved into a fanciful head as in Fig. 268.

Procedure:

1. Identify a suitable fir-tree for cutting.
2. Make the appropriate cuts as shown in Fig. 264 to obtain the right-shaped log for an end plate.
3. Score and hew the log as illustrated in Fig. 265 to flatten its end, resulting in the shape shown in Fig. 266.

Details:
• The elbows at the end of the plates (Fig. 266) are used to prevent roof logs from rolling off.
• For a Susitna log cabin with thatch or shingle roofs, use flattened logs (_le carréage_) or round logs.
• If using flattened logs, employ the General Putnam square notch (Fig. 263) for joining the ends of your logs.

To install windows in log cabins:

1. If planning to use glass window lights, ensure that the window openings are of the proper size to fit factory-made window-frames and sashes.
2. If the cabin is to be left unoccupied, install heavy shutters that fit into the window opening to keep out trespassers.

To make logs hold together at the corners of cabins, notch them in one of several ways:

Flat Notches:
• Cut flat notches as shown in Fig. 162.
• These will lock the logs together (as shown by 162 _E_).

General Putnam Joint:
• Flatten only the ends of the logs to create this joint, as shown in Fig. 163.
• Named after General Putnam due to its use in his old camp near Redding, Conn.

Pike Notch:
• Cut a wedge-shaped notch on the lower log (Fig. 164 _J_).
• Fit this into a triangular notch on the upper log (Fig. 164 _H_).
• When fitted together, they look like Fig. 164 _F_.

Rounded Notch:
• Use the rounded notch shown in Fig. 165 (_A_, _B_, and _C_).
• When locked together, they fit like those shown in Fig. 165 _D_.

Dovetail Joint (Northern Style):
• Dovetail the ends of the logs as shown in Fig. 166.
• This creates a snug and secure joint due to the dovetail shape.

Building the Cabin:
• Place two sill logs on the ground or foundation.
• Lay additional logs across them, as shown in Fig. 168.

Procedure for Roofing a Log Cabin:

1. Traditional methods used shakes, splits, clapboards, or hand-rived shingles (illustrated in Figs. 126, 128, 129, and 130).
2. Modern methods typically use machine-sawed shingles.
3. Alternative roofing options include:
- Covering the roof with planks, as shown in Fig. 233.
- Using bark weighted down with poles, as illustrated in Fig. 234.
4. If using planks:
- Nail them on like a floor, then lay another course of boards over the cracks between the first layer to ensure a tight roof.

Materials needed: Straightest and largest logs.

Steps:
1. Choose suitable logs: Save the largest, straightest, and best logs for sills or foundations.
2. Protect from dampness: If building on the ground (mudsill), protect sill logs from moisture to prevent rotting.
3. Apply wood preservative: Use a wood preservative such as creosote or oil to extend the life of the logs.

To make logs easier to handle during construction:

Create a Skidway:
• Rest the top ends of several poles on a large log or elevated surface.
• Ensure the lower ends of the poles are on the ground.

Using the Skidway:
• Logs can be rolled off the skidway as they are needed for construction.
• This reduces effort and makes handling logs more efficient.

Procedure for Preparing a Mudsill Floor:

1. Wet the floor until it becomes spongy.
2. Use the butt end of a log to ram the dirt down hard, creating an even, hard surface.
3. This method was used by some of the greatest men in history when they were babies.

Materials Needed: Shovel, ponchos, ice or snowblocks, skis, ski poles, snowshoes, sled (optional), boughs (if available).

Steps to Construct a Snow Hole:
1. Choose a Location: Select an area with a thick snowdrift or dig a trench in the snow where you can create a shelter.
2. Dig the Hole: Use a shovel to burrow into the snowdrift or dig a trench deep enough to provide insulation from the cold.
3. Construct the Roof: Use ponchos, ice blocks, or snowblocks supported by skis, ski poles, or snowshoes to create a roof over the hole.
4. Add Insulation: Place a sled inside the shelter for additional insulation if available.
5. Cover and Bedding: If boughs are available, use them to cover the roof and as bedding material inside the shelter.

Notes: This method provides quick shelter in snowy environments and is ideal when immediate protection from wind and cold is necessary.

Materials needed: A rectangular piece of canvas, additional canvas for the fly, rope.

1. Combine No. 8 and No. 1 to create a shelter with an awning or fly.
2. Use a rope to suspend both the tent and the fly, allowing them to be adjusted as needed.
3. The awning can be swung around to any angle, providing flexibility in use.
4. This design offers additional protection from rain and sun while maintaining access to the fire or camp area.

*The canoe tent with a fly is ideal for extended stays or when extra protection is required.*

Materials needed: A rectangular piece of canvas.

1. Turn two corners under to form the base of the tent.
2. Construct an entirely enclosed conical structure, with a door in front for access.
3. Ensure that the shape is stable and provides adequate headroom inside.
4. This design resembles a wigwam, offering protection from wind and rain.

*The conical tent or wigwam is ideal for use in open areas where full coverage is needed.*

Steps to Construct a Double Lean-To Shelter:

1. Select a location: Choose an area with two sturdy trees or poles and flat ground.
2. Drive support posts: Insert two long, straight branches or poles into the ground at an angle (about 45 degrees) near each tree.
3. Secure the support posts: Tie the top end of each support post to its respective tree trunk using paracord or other available material.
4. Lay the cover: Place a tarp, poncho, or large piece of fabric over both structures, securing one edge to the ground and the opposite edges to the two support posts.
5. Add additional supports: Use smaller branches or poles as crossbars between the support posts and tree trunks for added stability.
6. Cover with materials: Add layers of leaves, grass, or other natural materials on top of the cover for insulation and protection from rain.
7. Create a floor: If possible, place a tarp or other material under the shelter to create a dry sleeping area.
8. Insulate if needed: Use natural materials such as leaves, grass, or pine needles to insulate the ground and add comfort.

Notes:
• Ensure that both support posts are strong enough to hold the weight of the cover and any additional materials.
• If possible, use multiple layers for better insulation and protection from rain.
• Avoid using sharp objects to secure the structure to prevent tearing or damage.

Steps to Construct a Fallen Tree Bivouac:

1. Select a location: Choose an area with a fallen tree that is long enough and flat enough to serve as the base of your shelter.
2. Clear the ground: Remove any debris or sharp objects from the area where you will be sleeping to prevent injury.
3. Use the fallen tree as a base: Lay the fallen tree on the ground, ensuring it is stable and level.
4. Add insulation: Use leaves, grass, or other natural materials to create a layer of insulation between your body and the ground.
5. Cover with materials: If possible, use tarps, branches, or any available materials to cover the area above you for protection from rain and wind.
6. Secure the cover: Tie the edges of the cover to nearby trees or stakes if necessary to ensure stability.
7. Create a sleeping area: Ensure that the insulation layer is thick enough to provide comfort and protection from cold ground.

Notes:
• Avoid using sharp objects to secure the cover to prevent tearing or damage.
• If possible, use multiple layers for better insulation and protection from rain.
• Ensure that the fallen tree is not rotting or unstable before using it as a base.

Materials needed: A rectangular piece of canvas, rope or horizontal pole, cords.

1. Fold the rectangle to create a lean-to shelter structure.
2. Suspend the roof front from a rope or horizontal pole using cords.
3. Fold the two unused corners under to form a partial ground cloth.
4. Ensure that the square open front is directed toward the camp fire for warmth and visibility.

*This shelter provides protection from rain and wind while allowing for easy access to the fire.*

Steps to Construct a Sapling Shelter:

1. Select a location: Choose an area with sturdy saplings (at least 2 inches in diameter) and flat ground.
2. Dig holes: Dig shallow pits at each end of the intended shelter length, about 6-8 inches deep.
3. Insert saplings: Place two saplings into each hole at a slight angle, leaning inward toward the center of the shelter.
4. Secure saplings: Tie the saplings together at the top with paracord or other available material to form an A-frame structure.
5. Add crossbars: Use additional saplings or branches as crossbars between the two main saplings for added stability and support.
6. Cover with materials: Use tarps, branches, leaves, or any available materials to cover the shelter from above and sides, ensuring it is waterproof and insulated.
7. Create a floor: If possible, place a tarp or other material under the shelter to create a dry sleeping area.
8. Insulate if needed: Use natural materials such as leaves, grass, or pine needles to insulate the ground and add comfort.

Notes:
• Ensure that the saplings are strong enough to support the weight of the covering materials.
• If possible, use multiple layers for better insulation and protection from rain.
• Avoid using sharp objects to secure the structure to prevent tearing or damage.

Materials Needed: Blocks of compact snow or ice.

Steps to Construct a Snow Wall:
1. Select Location: Choose an area with sufficient snow and ice coverage in open terrain.
2. Form the Structure: Use blocks of compact snow or ice to build a wall that acts as a windbreak.
3. Ensure Stability: Stack the blocks securely to form a continuous barrier that can effectively reduce wind exposure.

Notes: This method is particularly useful in snowy environments where wind protection is critical for survival.

Materials needed: A rectangular piece of canvas, two or more guy lines.

1. Use all the cloth to form a triangular ground plan.
2. Create a square front opening for access and ventilation.
3. Ensure there is plenty of head room at the back for comfort.
4. Secure the tent using two or more guy lines for stability.
5. This shelter resembles a toque, providing good coverage and protection from the elements.

*The toque tent is ideal for use in open areas where additional support is needed.*

Materials needed: A rectangular piece of canvas, one point of suspension.

1. Use the same plan as No.3, but modify it to have a triangular front.
2. Suspend the shelter from a single point using cords or rope.
3. Ensure that the structure is stable and provides adequate coverage.
4. The triangular front design allows for better wind resistance in certain conditions.

*This variation of the lean-to is useful when only one point of suspension is available.*

Materials Needed:
• Logs or small poles
• Forked sticks
• Sod or browse
• Grass, fine brush, or browse
• Moss and dry grass (for calking)
• Sod or mud
• Fireplace materials (sod or stone)
• Log chimney components

Steps to Build a Northland Tilt Shelter:
1. Set Up the Ridge-Pole: Place a ridge-pole on two forked sticks, ensuring it is stable and level.
2. Construct the Frame: Lay logs slanted up against each other and resting upon the ridge-pole. This forms the basic structure of the shelter.
3. Add Support Poles: Use smaller poles laid up against the frame on both the front and rear to reinforce the structure.
4. Cover with Insulation: Cover the frame with sod or browse to create a warm, insulated winter house.
5. Build the Fireplace and Chimney:
- Construct a fireplace using sod or stone as shown in Figs. 269 and 270.
- Build a chimney on top of the fireplace, following the same method used for constructing a log house.
6. Finish the Structure: For the front of the shelter, face it with small logs set on end (as seen in Fig. 189). This provides additional insulation and structural integrity.
7. Seal Cracks:
- If logs are uneven or have gaps, cover them first with grass, fine brush, or browse.
- Apply a layer of sod or mud over the cracks to ensure the shelter is weatherproof and warm.

Tips: This structure can be made more comfortable by adding a log chimney connected to a generous fireplace. The result will be a warm and substantial winter camp suitable for long-term use.

Materials Required:
• Sod (grass with soil)
• Smaller trees or browse for shingles
• Cane, bamboo, or palmetto leaves (for southern regions)
• Cottonwood and adobe/mud (for southwestern regions)
• Tools for cutting and shaping materials

Steps to Construct the Stefansson Sod Shack:
1. Select a Suitable Location:
- Choose an area with access to sod or alternative roofing materials.
- Ensure the site is elevated to avoid flooding during heavy rains.
2. **Prepare the Foundation:
- Clear the ground of debris and level it as much as possible.
3. **Build the Frame:
- Construct a rectangular frame using available timber, such as smaller trees or poles.
- Ensure the walls are sturdy enough to support the roof structure.
4. **Construct the Roof with Sod:
- Cut sod into manageable pieces and lay them over the frame in overlapping layers.
- The walls should project slightly above the rafters to allow for proper insulation and protection from the elements.
5. **Create an Opening for the Fireplace:
- Leave a gap in the roof directly above the fireplace area to serve as a chimney.
6. **Construct the Doorway:
- Create an opening similar to that of a tent for the doorway.
- In colder months, build a hallway outside the entrance (similar to Navajo earth lodges or Pawnee hogans) to provide additional protection from the cold.
7. **Insulate and Protect the Structure:
- In milder weather, cover the doorway with a skin or other insulating material.
8. **Secure the Roofing Material:
- For southern regions, use cane, bamboo, or palmetto leaves as shingles.
- In the Southwest, cover the roof with adobe or mud for added insulation and durability.

Notes:
• The Stefansson sod shack is particularly effective in cold climates when the sod is frozen and covered with snow.
• In summer, the roof may leak, so it's advisable to use a tent during warmer months.
• This design was adapted from traditional northern shelters and is suitable for outdoor survival scenarios.

Overview: The Red Jacket is a more complex camp structure with straight walls and is considered a white man's camp in form. It evolved from simpler forms such as the New Brunswick and Christopher Gist shelters.

Steps to Build the Red Jacket:
1. Start with Simpler Structures: Understand how to build the New Brunswick shelter first, then move on to constructing the Christopher Gist shelter.
2. Build the New Brunswick Shelter:
- Use basic materials such as logs and poles to create a simple, sturdy structure.
3. Construct the Christopher Gist Shelter:
- This is an intermediate step between the New Brunswick and Red Jacket shelters. It involves more refined construction techniques but still retains simplicity.
4. Evolve into the Red Jacket: Once the simpler forms are mastered, build upon them to create the Red Jacket shelter with straight walls and a more defined structure.

Notes: The Red Jacket is considered a good, comfortable, rough camp that can be adapted for various environments. It is shown in Figs. 190 and 191 as an evolved form of earlier shelters.

Materials Needed:
• Three forked sticks (A, B, and C)
• Branches or poles for framework
• Browse or boughs for thatching
• Optional: Elm, spruce, or birch bark; shingles

Steps to Build the Shelter:
1. Create the Framework: Take three forked sticks (A, B, and C) and interlock their forked ends so they stand as shown in Fig. 12.
2. Rest Branches on the Framework: Place branches with their butt ends up over this framework, as shown in the right-hand shelter of Fig. 13.
3. Alternative Framework Option: Alternatively, lay a number of poles as shown in the left-hand figure (Fig. 12) and thatch them with browse as illustrated by the left-hand shelter in Fig. 13.
4. Thatching Options: Use elm, spruce, or birch bark and shingle as shown in Fig. 14 for additional protection. Alternatively, use balsam, spruce, pine, or hemlock boughs; cat-tails; rushes (see Figs. 66 and 69); or any kind of long-stemmed weeds or palmetto leaves.
5. Adjust Size: These shelters may be built for one person or made large enough to accommodate several men.

Notes:
• This shelter is versatile and can be adapted based on available materials.
• The framework should be sturdy enough to support the weight of thatching materials.

Materials Needed:
• Green boughs with leaves
• Common sense and understanding of natural materials

Steps to Thatch Properly:
1. Select the Boughs: Use green boughs with leaves adhering, which can be rested against the cliffs or other structures.
2. Position the Boughs Correctly: Set the boughs upside down so that they will shed rain and not hold it, preventing dripping into your shelter.
3. Ensure Proper Orientation: Make sure all the boughs point downward and not upward as most naturally grow. This is crucial for proper water drainage.
4. Avoid Common Mistakes: Do not place the boughs with their branches pointing upward, as this can lead to water retention and dripping into your shelter. This mistake was observed in some Boy Scout instructors who failed to consider natural rain shedding properties.

Notes:
• The wilderness itself provides privacy, so there is no need for excessive thatching for concealment.
• Proper orientation of boughs ensures effective protection from the elements.

Materials Required:
• Upright poles
• Additional poles for roof support
• Logs or poles for roofing
• Sod or dirt for covering

Steps:
1. Set up upright poles to form the walls of the shelter (as shown in Fig. 141).
2. Surround the structure with a circle of additional poles, forming a frame for the roof.
3. Place logs or poles across the top of the frame to create a sloped roof.
4. Cover the roof with sod or dirt to provide insulation and protection from the sun and rain.
5. Ensure that all parts of the structure are securely fastened together.

Notes:
• This shelter is ideal for hot weather due to its natural insulation properties.
• Can be constructed quickly using locally available materials.

Materials Required:
• Railroad ties
• Stakes or posts for support

Steps:
1. Lay railroad ties flat on the ground, stacking them to form solid walls (as shown in Fig. 137).
2. Secure each tie with stakes driven into the ground on both sides of the ties.
3. Continue building up the structure until desired height is achieved.
4. Ensure that all ties are tightly packed and secured for stability.

Notes:
• This method provides a more stable and durable shelter than the tent-style.
• Ideal for use in areas where railroad ties are readily available.

Materials Needed: Stilts, platform framework, arches (similar to Iroquois design), horizontal poles, lashing material (e.g., rope or twine), thatching materials (bark, rushes, hay), browse for floor covering.

Steps:
1. Build the Platform Framework: Construct a raised platform on stilts where the ground is marshy and unfit to sleep upon. Ensure the platform is stable and elevated above the damp ground.
2. Create Arched Structure: Use uprights on both sides of the platform, bending their ends over and lashing them together to form arches for the roof. This structure resembles the Iroquois lodge design.
3. Add Horizontal Poles: Over the arches, lash horizontal poles in the same manner as described for the construction of an Iroquois lodge. These will support the thatching or roofing material.
4. Thatch the Roof: Secure thatching materials (such as bark or rushes) to the horizontal poles using lashing techniques shown in Fig. 66. Ensure the roof is tightly covered and waterproof.
5. Floor Construction: The floor of the bog ken should be more elaborate than other shelters. Halve the poles before laying them for the floor. Cover these with browse, hay, or rushes to create a dry and insulated sleeping surface.

Additional Features:
• To prevent varmints from climbing the supporting poles, slide a tin pan with a hole in the bottom over the poles (as shown in Fig. 67).
• For added protection around the front porch or balcony, spring sticks into place to form a railing (as illustrated in Fig. 68).

Materials Needed:
• Dwarf willows
• Bamboo cane
• Alders or other small underbrush
• Improvised twine
• Stakes
• Browse (small twigs with leaves)

Procedure Steps:
1. Gather Materials: Collect a plentiful supply of twigs and small branches from dwarf willows, bamboo cane, alders, or similar underbrush.
2. Bind Twigs into Bundles: Use improvised twine to bind the twigs into bundles of equal size. These will serve as building blocks for the structure.
3. Lay the Wall Structure: Arrange the bundles in a wall-like formation, ensuring that joints between bundles are staggered so they do not form continuous lines. This helps increase stability and strength.
4. Secure with Stakes: Hold the wall in place by driving stakes into the ground at appropriate intervals (as shown in Fig. 26).
5. Level Bundles Using Browse: Use small twigs with leaves attached (browse) to level the bundles and prevent them from rocking on uneven surfaces.
6. Create Doorways and Windows: Construct doorways and window openings using standard techniques. For windows, use rods laid over the top of fagots to create a firm window-sill (as shown in Fig. 27). Similarly, place rods across the top of doorways for stability.
7. Roof Construction: After erecting the walls, construct a roof either using a beaver-mat or by creating a frame and thatching it with small sticks, straw, hay, rushes, or browse (as shown in Figs. 66, 69, and 28). This will help shed rain effectively.

Additional Notes:
• The fagot shack is ideal for areas where large timber is not available but smaller underbrush is plentiful.
• This method avoids the need to cut down large or valuable trees, as it uses lower branches of existing trees (cut close to the trunk, as shown in Fig. 121).
• For a more permanent structure, plaster the outside and inside walls with soft mud or clay to transform it into an adobe shack.

Materials Needed: Two trees or sturdy poles (4–12” in diameter), a pole for the roof support (at least 3–4” in diameter), and several long poles for stringers.

Steps to Construct:
1. Select a site with two trees spaced far enough apart that a man can lie down between them. If no trees are available, insert two sturdy poles into the ground at the proper distance apart.
2. Cut a pole to support the roof. It should be long enough to extend 4–6” past both trees and tied horizontally between the two trees approximately 1 meter off the deck.
3. Cut several long poles to be used as stringers. Place them along the horizontal support bar approximately every 1½’ and lay on the ground. All stringers may be tied to or laid on the horizontal support bar.
4. Construct a short wall or use rocks/logs on the ground to lift the stringers off the ground, creating additional height and living room dimensions.
5. Cut several saplings and weave them horizontally between the stringers. Cover the roof with water-repellent and insulating material.

Considerations:
• This is an effective shelter in heavily forested areas but does not offer a great degree of protection from the elements.
• Ensure that the shelter provides adequate protection from the elements (sun, wind, rain, snow).
• Plan for worst-case scenarios.

Materials Required: Hard pack snow or ice, knife or sharp object for cutting snow blocks.

Steps to Construct a Snow Trench Shelter:
1. Select the Location: Choose an area with hard pack snow (such as alpine or glacier environments) where trees or building materials are not available.
2. Dig the Trench: Use your hands, a knife, or any sharp object to dig a shallow trench in the snow. The trench should be wide enough to accommodate one person lying down and deep enough to provide insulation from the cold air above.
3. Cut Snow Blocks: Cut blocks of snow or ice using a knife or other sharp tool. These blocks will be used as walls or additional insulation within the trench.
4. Build Walls (if needed): Place the cut snow blocks along the sides and ends of the trench to create walls that help retain body heat inside the shelter.
5. Pack Snow for Insulation: Add more loose snow on top of the trench and around the structure to provide additional insulation from the cold air above.

Important Notes:
• This is a short-term shelter suitable for extreme cold environments where traditional materials are not available.
• Ensure that the trench is deep enough to protect against wind and cold air.
• Use caution when cutting snow blocks with sharp tools to avoid injury.

Materials Required:
• Three main poles (approx. 10 feet long, 3 inches thick)
• Several side poles (2 inches thick or less, same length as main poles)
• Short poles for support
• Ponchos, canvas, or other suitable material for covering
• Boughs or branches for bedding and insulation
• Snow for sealing the shelter

Steps to Build a Wigwam Shelter:
1. In lightly wooded areas, select three main poles about 10 feet long and 3 inches thick.
2. Tie them together approximately one foot from the small end.
3. Place the tied ends uppermost and position the poles upright in the ground.
4. Spread the poles so that the distance from the ground to the point where they are secured is about eight feet.
5. Select several side poles (about 2 inches thick or less) of similar length to the main poles.
6. Lean these side poles against the tie position of the main poles for additional support.
7. Place short poles flat on the ground between the ground ends of the side and main poles to hold them in place.
8. Cover the frame with ponchos, canvas, or other suitable material, tying separate pieces together.
9. Leave an opening for an entrance.
10. If boughs or branches are the only available material, use more side poles to create a closer frame on which to weave.
11. Bank the lower edge of the completed wigwam with snow to prevent drafts.
12. Build a bough bed in the same manner as for a lean-to.
13. Hang an improvised fire box (made from a large tin can) from the top of the lean-to by a wire.
14. Create a draft channel under the wall and include a smoke hole at the apex for ventilation.
15. Alternatively, heat the wigwam by building a fire outside the door with a reflector wall.

Materials Required: Pine boughs or tentage, sturdy branches or poles for framework.

Steps to Construct an A-Frame Shelter:
1. Select and Prepare Framework: Choose two long, straight poles or branches that are approximately 6–8 feet in length. These will form the A-frame structure.
2. Assemble the Frame: Place the two poles together at one end to create a triangle shape (A-frame). Secure them together using natural materials such as vines, rope, or by interweaving the ends if possible.
3. Add Support Posts: If needed for stability, add additional shorter posts between the two main poles to reinforce the structure and provide more space inside the shelter.
4. Cover with Insulation Material: Interweave pine boughs or use tentage over the framework to create a roof and walls. Ensure that the material is tightly packed to prevent gaps through which cold air can enter.
5. Insulate with Snow: Pack snow onto the outside of the shelter structure for insulation. The snow will act as an insulating layer, helping to retain body heat inside the shelter.

Important Notes:
• This shelter is suitable for 1–3 individuals.
• Ensure that the A-frame is stable and not leaning to one side before adding insulation materials.
• Avoid using wet or decaying pine boughs as they may not provide adequate insulation.

Materials Required:
• Barrels
• Sand, gravel, or dirt for filling
• Logs or poles for roofing
• Sod or dirt for covering
• Stakes or posts for support

Steps:
1. Dig a hole in the ground to serve as the foundation of the shelter (as shown in Fig. 142).
2. Level the floor inside the dugout.
3. Place rows of barrels around the foundation, filling them with sand, gravel, or dirt for stability.
4. Stack another row of barrels on top of the first, leaving space for a window and door opening.
5. Cover the structure with logs or poles to form a roof, then cover it with sod or dirt for insulation.
6. Fill in the sides of the dugout with dirt, leaving the window and door openings exposed.
7. Use one barrel as a chimney by cutting an opening in its top and placing it near the roof.

Notes:
• This shelter is ideal for areas where timber is scarce but barrels are available (e.g., mining or homesteading camps).
• Provides good insulation and protection from harsh weather conditions.

Materials Required:
• Railroad ties
• Ridge-pole (for safety)

Steps:
1. Lay railroad ties flat on the ground, resting their ends together in a tent-like shape.
2. Ensure that the structure is stable by using the weight of the ties to hold it up.
3. Warning: This style may be dangerous due to the risk of falling into the structure. Avoid building this for children or inexperienced builders.
4. For added safety, install a ridge-pole (as shown in Fig. 139) and rest the ties against it.
5. Secure the ridge-pole firmly to prevent collapse or injury.

Notes:
• This structure is not recommended for long-term use due to its instability.
• Use only if temporary shelter is needed, and always ensure safety precautions are followed.

Materials Required:
• Railroad ties
• Ridge-pole
• Shears (two sticks bound together)

Steps:
1. Set up two shears at each end of the structure by binding two sticks together near the top and spreading them apart to form a V-shape.
2. Place the ridge-pole across the shears, securing it in place.
3. Lay railroad ties flat on the ground and rest them against the ridge-pole (as shown in Figs. 139 and 140).
4. Ensure that all ties are securely placed and supported by the ridge-pole.
5. Cover the structure with dirt or sod for insulation and weather protection.

Notes:
• This style is more stable than the tent-style and provides better protection from the elements.
• Ideal for use in areas where timber is scarce but railroad ties are available.

Title: Construct a Simple Lean-To Thatched Shelter

Overview: A simple lean-to thatched shelter is ideal for short-term use in temperate climates and can be built quickly with local materials.

Materials Required:
• Round poles (for the framework)
• Long grass, ferns, reeds, or other fibrous material (for thatching)
• Vines, bark strips, or other natural fibrous material (for lashings)
• A good knife, hatchet, or axe

Steps:
1. Gather Materials: Collect sufficient poles for the framework and thatching materials from your immediate surroundings.
2. Prepare Site: Choose a flat, dry area for construction. Clear any debris or obstacles.
3. Build Framework: Use round poles to create a simple A-frame structure leaning against a tree or sturdy object (e.g., a fallen log). Secure the base of the framework with lashings made from vines or bark strips.
4. Add Thatching: Layer long grass, reeds, or other fibrous material over the framework in overlapping rows to ensure weatherproofing. Press down firmly to secure each layer.
5. Secure Lashings: Use additional lashings to tie down the thatching and reinforce the structure where necessary.
6. Complete Shelter: Ensure the shelter is stable and provides adequate protection from rain and wind.

Notes: This shelter can be constructed in one to three hours by a single person or small group.

Materials Needed:
• Browse
• Hay
• Straw
• Dry leaves or dry grass
• Moist blue clay, yellow clay, hard-pan, or simple mud

Steps to Construct the Roof:
1. Lay Base Layer: Cover the roof with a thick layer of browse, hay, straw, dry leaves, or dry grass.
2. Apply Clay Mixture: Spread moist blue clay, yellow clay, hard-pan, or simple mud over the base layer.
3. Compact the Clay: Trample down the clay mixture firmly to ensure it fills all cracks and crannies in the thatch underneath.
4. Form a Firm Covering: Continue trampling until you have formed a firm covering of clay several inches thick.

Notes:
• This method creates a durable, waterproof roof suitable for long-term shelter.
• Ensure the clay is moist enough to bind the materials together effectively.

Steps to Calculate Roof Slope:

1. Understand the slope terminology: The slope of a roof is expressed as a ratio of rise (vertical distance) to run (horizontal distance), typically in inches per foot.
2. Determine the rise and run: Measure the vertical height (rise) and horizontal length (run) of the roof section you are calculating.
3. Use standard units: Express the slope using the standard unit of 12 inches for the run. For example, a slope of 8/12 means that the roof rises 8 inches for every 12 inches of horizontal distance.
4. Convert non-standard measurements: If the plan provides rise and run in different units (e.g., 2 inches per 5 inches), use proportion to convert it to standard units:
- Example: 2/5 = x/12 → 5x = 24 → x = 4.8 (or 4 4/5)
5. Apply the slope ratio: Use this calculated slope ratio for framing and material selection.

Notes:
• This method is commonly used in roof construction to ensure proper drainage and structural integrity.
• Accurate calculation of slope ensures that materials are properly aligned and fastened.

Steps to Calculate Total Rise:

1. Understand the term: The total rise is the vertical distance from the intersection of the upper edge of the rafter with the building limit line to the top of the ridge.
2. Measure the rise: Use a measuring tape or ruler to determine the vertical height from the base of the rafter to the ridge.
3. Calculate using formula: Total rise = (rise in inches) × (total run in feet)
4. Record the total rise: This value is essential for determining roof slope and framing requirements.

Notes:
• The total rise helps determine how steep or flat a roof should be based on structural needs and environmental conditions.
• It is used in conjunction with span to calculate rafter length and other components.

Steps to Construct a Gable Roof:

1. Understand the design: A gable roof has two sloped sides that meet at a central ridge, forming a triangular shape (gable) at the top.
2. Use appropriate materials: Ensure the roof is constructed with materials suitable for the climate and load-bearing requirements.
3. Ensure proper slope: The roof must be sloped to allow water runoff. In areas with heavy snowfall or high winds, construct it more rigidly and/or increase the pitch of the roof.
4. Install ridge beam: Place a central ridge beam at the top of the structure where the two slopes meet.
5. Frame rafters: Install rafters on both sides of the ridge, sloping downward to meet the wall plates.
6. Secure with proper fasteners: Use nails or other appropriate fasteners to secure all components together for stability and durability.
7. Add roofing material: Cover the roof with waterproof materials such as shingles, tar paper, or metal sheets to protect against rain and snow.
8. Check for structural integrity: Ensure that the roof is strong enough to withstand environmental conditions like wind and heavy snow loads.

Notes:
• The gable roof is simple in design and economical to construct, making it ideal for military use.
• This type of roof can be used on any type of structure.

Steps to Construct a Gable and Valley Roof:

1. Understand the design: This roof is formed by two gable roofs intersecting each other, with a valley where they meet.
2. Frame both gable sections: Begin by constructing two separate gable roofs on either side of the building.
3. Create the valley: Where the two gable roofs intersect, form a valley by ensuring that the slopes are angled in different directions.
4. Install ridge beams and rafters: Place ridge beams at the top of each section and install rafters to support both sides of the roof.
5. Secure all components: Use fasteners such as nails or screws to ensure that all parts are securely attached.
6. Cover with roofing material: Install waterproof materials like shingles, metal sheets, or tar paper over the sloped surfaces.
7. Check for structural integrity: Ensure the roof is strong enough to withstand wind and snow loads.

Notes:
• This type of roof is more complex and requires careful planning and construction.
• It is not commonly used in standard military construction due to its complexity and labor requirements.

Steps to Construct a Hip Roof:

1. Understand the design: A hip roof has four sloped sides that meet at the center of the building, with rafters extending diagonally from the corners.
2. Frame the structure: Begin by constructing the main walls and ensuring they are level and plumb.
3. Install ridge beam: Place a central ridge beam where all four slopes will converge.
4. Add diagonal rafters: Install rafters at each corner of the building, extending diagonally toward the center or end of the ridge.
5. Frame additional rafters: Add more rafters between the diagonal ones to provide support and stability.
6. Secure all components: Use fasteners such as nails or screws to ensure that all parts are securely attached.
7. Cover with roofing material: Install waterproof materials like shingles, metal sheets, or tar paper over the sloped surface.
8. Check for structural integrity: Ensure the roof is strong enough to withstand wind and snow loads.

Notes:
• This type of roof provides greater stability and resistance to wind compared to other types.
• It requires more time and labor to construct than simpler roof designs.

Steps to Construct a Lean-To or Shed Roof:

1. Understand the design: A lean-to roof has a single slope, with one side of the structure higher than the other.
2. Use temporary materials: Since this is typically used for hasty or temporary construction, use lightweight and easily available materials.
3. Frame walls: Construct two parallel walls, with one wall at a higher elevation than the other.
4. Install support posts: Place vertical posts along the lower wall to provide additional support if needed.
5. Add roof slope: Install rafters or beams that slope from the higher wall down to the lower wall.
6. Secure roofing material: Cover the sloped surface with waterproof materials such as tar paper, tarpaulin, or shingles.
7. Ensure stability: Use fasteners and bracing to ensure the roof is stable and can withstand wind and weather conditions.

Notes:
• This type of roof is suitable for sheds, additions to buildings, or temporary structures.
• It is ideal when quick construction is needed.

Materials: Lumber, poles, planks, tar paper, barrel staves, old tin roofing, sod.

Steps:
1. Use lumber for the roof as shown in Fig. 160.
2. Use poles like those on the Wyoming Olebo (Fig. 236) for a different style of roof.
3. Construct a roof using planks and cover with tar paper, as illustrated in Figs. 296–299.
4. Create a shingled roof by using barrel staves as shingles.
5. Cover the planking with bits of old tin roofing tacked over it.
6. Regardless of material used, ensure that the roof is waterproof and will keep out water.
7. After construction, cover the roof with sod to improve concealment and insulation.

Materials needed: Rye or wheat straw, hay, bulrushes, wooden needle (1 foot long and pointed at both ends), thatching twine, wire netting.

Steps:
1. Soak the thatch in water and straighten any bent straws.
2. Build the roof steeply, as shown in Fig. 57.
3. Create a wooden needle with a foot length and pointed at both ends, as illustrated in Fig. 59.
4. Tie thatching twine to the middle of the needle.
5. Bundle the thatch into groups four inches thick and one foot wide, like those shown in Fig. 60.
6. Lay these bundles along next to the eaves, as depicted in Fig. 58.
7. Sew the bundles in place by running the needle up through the wire netting to the man on the outside who pushes it back to the man on the inside.
8. Make a knot at each wisp of thatch until one layer is finished.
9. Allow the lower ends to overhang the eaves.
10. Proceed as illustrated by Fig. 66 and described under the heading of the bog ken.

Steps to Define and Calculate Line Length:

1. Understand the term: The line length is the hypotenuse of a triangle formed by the total run (base) and total rise (altitude).
2. Measure the run and rise: Use a measuring tape or ruler to determine both values.
3. Calculate using Pythagorean theorem: Line length = √(total run² + total rise²)
4. Record the line length: This value is essential for determining rafter length and other components.

Notes:
• The line length helps in accurately calculating the length of rafters needed for construction.
• It ensures that all components are properly aligned and spaced.

Steps to Define and Calculate Pitch:

1. Understand the term: Pitch is the ratio of rise to roof span, typically expressed as a fraction (e.g., 8/12).
2. Measure the rise and span: Use a measuring tape or ruler to determine both values.
3. Calculate pitch: Divide the total rise by the total span to get the pitch ratio.
4. Record the pitch: This value is essential for determining roof slope and framing requirements.

Notes:
• Pitch helps in selecting appropriate materials and ensuring proper drainage.
• It is used in conjunction with other measurements to calculate rafter length and other components.

Steps to Define and Calculate Rise in Inches:

1. Understand the term: The rise in inches is the number of inches that a roof rises for every foot of run.
2. Measure the rise: Use a measuring tape or ruler to determine how much the roof rises over a 1-foot horizontal distance.
3. Record the measurement: This value is essential for calculating slope and determining rafter length.

Notes:
• The rise in inches helps ensure that the roof has the correct pitch for proper drainage and structural integrity.
• It is used in conjunction with run to calculate total rise and other components.

Steps to Define and Measure Roof Span:

1. Understand the term: The span of a roof is the shortest distance between two opposite rafter seats, measured at right angles to the ridge.
2. Measure the span: Use a measuring tape or ruler to determine the distance from one outside wall plate to the other, perpendicular to the direction of the ridge.
3. Record the measurement: Ensure that the span is accurately recorded for use in calculating rafters and other roof components.

Notes:
• The span is essential for determining the size and number of rafters needed.
• It helps ensure proper structural balance and load distribution across the roof.

Steps to Define and Measure Total Run:

1. Understand the term: The total run is the level distance over which a rafter passes, typically one-half of the span in an ordinary gable roof.
2. Measure the run: Use a measuring tape or ruler to determine the horizontal distance from one end of the rafter to the other.
3. Record the measurement: This value is essential for calculating slope and determining rafter length.

Notes:
• The total run helps in laying out rafters using a framing square.
• It ensures that all components are properly aligned and spaced.

Steps to Understand and Use Plumb and Level Lines:

1. Define plumb line: A plumb line is a vertical line on a rafter when it is in its proper position.
2. Define level line: A level line is a horizontal line on a rafter when it is in its proper position.
3. Use for layout and alignment: These lines are used to ensure that rafters are properly aligned and positioned during construction.
4. Check with tools: Use a plumb bob or level to verify the accuracy of these lines.

Notes:
• Plumb and level lines help in ensuring structural integrity and proper alignment of roof components.
• They are essential for accurate framing and construction.

Steps to Understand and Use the Unit of Run:

1. Define the term: The unit of run is a standard measurement used for roof framing, typically 12 inches (1 foot).
2. Use the unit of run: This standard unit allows for consistent calculations when using a framing square or other tools.
3. Apply to slope calculation: For example, if a plan provides a rise of 8 inches per 5 inches of run, convert it to the standard unit by proportion:
- Example: 8/5 = x/12 → 5x = 96 → x = 19.2 (or 19 1/5)
4. Record and use: This converted measurement is used for accurate framing and material selection.

Notes:
• The unit of run ensures consistency in roof construction across different projects.
• It simplifies the process of calculating slope and other measurements.

Procedure:

1. General Assembly:
- Rafters are assembled into trusses, not used singly.
- Two rafters are connected at the top by a rafter or collar tie well nailed into both rafters.
- Before any ties or chords are nailed, check accuracy of the rafter cuts by spreading the lower ends to match the building width. This can be done using a template or measuring with a tape between seat cuts.

2. Truss Members:
- Rafters (Upper Chords): Same as rafters in end panel; carry roof load to studs.
- Lower Chord (Ceiling Joist): A 1 x 6 member spanning from the lower ends of two rafters. Increased to 2 x 6 if a ceiling is used and attached to them.
- Hanger: A 1 x 6 vertical member in the center of the truss connecting the peak of the rafters to the center of the lower chord.
- Web Members: Diagonal braces (cut from 2 x 4's) that tie the center of the lower chord with the centers of the rafters.
- Rafter Tie: A piece of 1 x 8 connecting two rafters at the peak, similar to end panel configuration.
- Knee Braces: Members tying the roof system to the wall system. Attached to rafter, lower chord, and stud in the sidewall panel.

3. Advantages of Truss System:
- Smaller size lumber can be used compared to plain rafter systems.
- Trusses can be fabricated as a unit for later erection, saving time and labor on most projects.

4. Templates or Jigs:
- Rafter framing without ridgeboards can be completed rapidly using truss assembly jigs or templates.
- Template Layout Steps:
1. Measure and mark a straight line on a selected surface, the exact length of the joists forming the chord of the truss (base line A).
2. From the center of base line A, lay out a line at right angles to it, forming a leg of a right triangle with half the length of base line A as its base and the rafter length as its hypotenuse (centerline C).
3. Nail 2 x 4 by 8-inch blocks flush with ends of base line A and centerline C.
4. Set a rafter in the jig with plate cut fitted over the jig block at one end of base line A. Peak should be flush with the centerline on the peak jig block. Use a holding block outside the rafter at point D. Repeat for other rafter at E.

5. Truss Assembly Steps:
- Lay one 2 x 4 joist or chord in place across base blocks.
- Place two 2 x 4 rafters over the joist.
- Center one end of a 1 x 6 hanger under rafter peak and center rafters against peak block.
- Nail through rafters into hanger with six 8-penny nails.
- Line up one end of chord, nail through rafter with 16-penny spikes. Repeat for other end of chord.
- Center bottom of hanger on top of chord and nail with 8-penny nails.

6. Truss Placement:
- After assembly, place trusses on the building.
- First set may be assembled in the end section or at the center as indicated in figure 2-21.
- Raise trusses by hand into position and nail to plate with 16- or 20-penny nails.
- Temporarily brace trusses to the end section of the building until sheathing is applied.

7. Installation Procedures:
- Mark proper positions of all truss assemblies on top plate, showing exact position of a given face of all rafters (south or north, etc.).
- Rest one end of a truss assembly, peak down, on an appropriate mark on the top plate on one side of the structure.
- Rest other end of truss on opposing mark on top plate on the other side of the structure.
- Rotate assembly into position using a pole or rope.
- Line up rafter faces flush against marks and secure.
- Raise, align, and nail several truss assemblies into position. Use temporary 1 x 6 braces across these assemblies as they are brought into position.
- Check rafter spacing at peaks as braces are nailed on.

8. Knee Braces:
- May be applied before or after sheathing is applied.
- Not used on every truss unless severe wind conditions are anticipated.
- Spaced as widely as 16 feet OC, as shown in figure 2-19.

9. Temporary Platforms:
- Building temporary platforms or work-benches for workers to stand on while erecting trusses will save time.

Materials Needed:
• Beaver-mat (if available)
• Small sticks
• Straw, hay, rushes, or browse

Procedure Steps:
1. Prepare the Frame: After erecting the walls of the fagot shack, construct a frame for the roof if using thatch (as shown in Fig. 28).
2. Lay the Roof Material: Place small sticks over the frame to create a base layer.
3. Add Thatch Layer: Cover the small sticks with straw, hay, rushes, or browse to form a thick, water-shedding thatch layer (as shown in Figs. 66 and 69).
4. Secure the Roof: Ensure the roof is tightly packed and secured so it can effectively shed rain.

Additional Notes:
• A beaver-mat may be used directly over the walls for a simpler roof construction.
• This method of roofing ensures that the structure remains dry in rainy conditions.

Overview: Rafters are inclined members that form the main body of a roof framework. They function similarly to joists on floors and studs on walls.

Key Points:
• Common rafters extend from plate to ridge-board at right angles (fig. 2-12).
• Hip rafters extend diagonally from corners formed by intersection plates to the ridgeboard (fig. 2-12).
• Valley rafters extend from plates to ridgeboards along lines where roof slopes intersect (fig. 2-12).
• Jack rafters are shorter than common rafters and rest on the plate with their upper ends against hip rafters (fig. 2-12).
• Cripple jacks are nailed between hip and valley rafters (fig. 2-12).

Rafter Cuts:
• Top of plumb cut is made at the end of the rafter to be placed against the ridgeboard or opposite rafters (fig. 2-12).
• Seat, bottom, or heel cut allows the rafter to rest on the plate (fig. 2-12).
• Side or cheek cut is a bevel cut on the side of a rafter to fit it against another frame member (fig. 2-12).
• Eave or tail refers to the overhang of the rafter extending beyond the outer edge of the plate (fig. 2-12).

Rafter Line Length: Measured along the upper edge of the rafter, it is the distance from the ridge line to a point marking the intersection of the upper edge of the rafter with the building limit (fig. 2-13).

Materials Needed:
• Short forked sticks
• Longer forked sticks
• Horizontal side-plates or purlins
• Sticks for doorway and hallway

Steps to Construct the Framework:
1. Erect the Circle of Uprights:
- Use short forked sticks to create a circular structure.
- Set their ends firmly in the ground to ensure stability.
2. Add Vertical Supports:
- Inside this circle, erect four longer forked sticks.
3. Install Horizontal Side-Plates or Purlins:
- Place horizontal side-plates across the four vertical supports.
- These may be referred to as 'purlins' and should align with the structure of a conventional dwelling.
4. Create the Doorway and Hallway:
- Use two short-forked sticks to form the doorway.
- Connect these to the side-plates using additional sticks to create a hallway from the door to the side walls.

Additional Notes:
• The rafter poles should be placed closely together in the finished structure, as should the short sticks forming the side walls and hallway.

Materials Needed:
• Browse, hay, straw, or rushes
• Sod or adobe (if applicable)
• Thatching material (e.g., bark, canvas, thatch)

Steps to Thatch or Cover the Roof:
1. Prepare the Base Layer:
- Lay browse, hay, straw, or rushes over the entire structure to create a thick mattress.
2. Cover with Sod or Adobe (if applicable):
- Place sod or adobe on top of the base layer.
3. Create an Opening for Ventilation and Smoke:
- Leave an opening at the top of the roof to act as a chimney for your central camp-fire (Fig. 43).

Additional Notes:
• If using bark, canvas, or thatch instead of sod or adobe, ensure it is securely fastened.
• The opening should be positioned in such a way that smoke can escape efficiently.

Materials Needed:
• Hollow log or barrel (for chimney)
• Additional sticks or materials for window frames

Steps to Add Windows and Improve Ventilation:
1. Install Windows:
- If the hogan is intended for more permanent use, add windows in the sides of the structure.
- Ensure that the windows allow sufficient light and air circulation.
2. Improve Ventilation with a Chimney:
- Use a hollow log or barrel as a chimney to improve ventilation and smoke removal.
- Position the chimney appropriately within the structure (as shown in Fig. 44).

Additional Notes:
• Windows should be constructed securely to prevent drafts or rain ingress.
• The chimney should be placed in such a way that it aligns with the central camp-fire for efficient smoke removal.

Materials Required:
• Logs for the main structure
• Bark (preferably from birch or similar trees)
• Shingles or splits for roof covering

Procedure Steps:
1. **Construct the Frame:
- Use logs as the primary structural elements, stacking them horizontally to form walls and a base.
2. **Insulate the Sides:
- Cover the sides of the log structure with bark shingles or splits, ensuring that only the ends of the logs are visible. This provides insulation and protection from the elements.
3. **Build the Roof:
- Use additional logs or poles to create a sloped roof frame.
- Cover the roof with bark shingles or splits for waterproofing and insulation.
4. Add Details:
- Ensure that the structure is sturdy, with all joints and seams properly sealed using natural materials like tar or resin if available.

Notes:
• This method was used by fishermen and early settlers in remote areas to create warm, insulated shelters.
• The use of bark provides both insulation and a natural aesthetic.

Step 2: Clear the Ground

• Rake back forest debris to clear a spot for your shelter.
• This step helps:
- Vacate insects and other critters from the area.
- Begin drying out the dirt of your shelter floor.

This preparation is essential before laying the foundation of your debris hut.

Materials Required:
• Timber (sawn or milled lumber)
• Splits or shakes for roofing
• Poles for securing roof
• Upright planks for walls
• Heavy planks for eaves and sill

Procedure Steps:
1. Choose the Location: Select a flat, stable area for construction. Ensure it is sheltered from strong winds if possible.
2. Prepare the Foundation: Dig a shallow trench or use natural ground level to create an underground floor (as in traditional kolshian designs). This helps with insulation and stability.
3. **Construct the Frame:
- Use upright planks for the walls, set them vertically into the ground or secured with stakes.
- Place heavy planks at the eaves, running down through holes in two upright corner planks (as shown in Fig. 45).
- Secure these planks to the sill plank, which binds the upright wall planks in place.
4. **Build the Roof:
- Lay poles across the top of the structure for support.
- Cover the roof with splits or shakes, securing them in place using the poles as a base.
5. Create the Entrance: Construct a large totem-pole at the front of the building and cut a doorway into it for entry.
6. Finish the Structure: Ensure all sides are covered with hewn planks set upright. Leave only the ends of logs protruding if using bark or similar materials for insulation.

Notes:
• This design is inspired by traditional Alaskan kolshian shelters and can be built without a lumberman's axe (hence, 'tomahawk camp').
• The underground floor suggests a connection to ancient European cave dwellings.

Step 4: Cover with Dirt

• Cover the mound of sticks with dirt.
• This step helps:
- Keep the sticks held together firmly.
- Create a more weather-tight seal as the shelter begins to take shape.

This is an important step in stabilizing and securing your debris hut.

Step 3: Elevate the Ridge Pole

• Create a small stack of logs, building them on top of each other like a pyramid.
• The ridge pole will rest on top of this stack.
• This creates room for your feet inside the shelter.

This step ensures comfort and proper structural support for the debris hut.

Step 5: Lashing the A-Frame

• Lash two poles together to form an A-Frame that will support the ridge pole of your debris hut.
• Options for lashing include:
- Using simple jute twine (cordage is NOT necessary).
- Propping a pole against a tree.
- Using a Y-shaped branch as an alternative.

This step provides essential structural support to your debris hut.

Step 1: Shelter Location

• Find an area with plenty of leaves and sticks.
• Ensure the location is free from natural hazards such as:
- Flooding
- "Widow maker" limbs or trees that could fall in a storm.

This step ensures your shelter is both functional and safe.

To build an Adirondack open log camp:

1. Use logs notched and placed like those of a log house (Figs. 162, 163, 164, 166).
2. Secure the front ends of the side logs by toe-nailing them to two upright supports (Fig. 173).
3. Flatten the inside of the logs for a smoother finish, as was common in old Virginia and Kentucky log houses.

This method provides a durable and traditional structure suitable for outdoor living.

Materials Required: Logs, carving tools, posts, and decorative elements.

Steps to Build the Structure:
1. Design the Layout: Use Figs. 251 and 252 as a general plan for arranging logs and constructing the house.
2. Carve Totems: Carve the ends of all extending logs to represent the heads of reptiles, beasts, or birds.
3. Carve Posts: Carve the posts that support the end logs on the front gallery, porch, or veranda in the form of totem-poles.
4. Add Totem-Posts: Place small totem-posts where your steps begin on the walk (Fig. 253).
5. Install a Family Totem-Pole: Add a tall totem-pole (Fig. 255) for your family or clan's totem.
6. Interior Layout: The dining-room is behind the half partition next to the kitchen; the other half of this room is open, forming a large living-room.
7. Staircase and Sleeping Areas: Construct stairs leading up to sleeping-rooms overhead. Divide the space with partitions as needed for convenience.

Additional Notes: The structure can be adjusted in size (e.g., 10 by 12 or 20 by 30 feet) depending on whether it is a camp or dwelling.

To construct bunks within a log cabin:

1. Set the ends of two poles into holes bored in the logs for that purpose (Fig. 185).
2. Nail slats across the poles to form the framework of the bunk.
3. Lay a bed of browse over the slats.
4. Spread blankets on top of the browse for sleeping.

This method provides a simple and effective way to create sleeping accommodations within a log cabin.

Procedure for Constructing a Permanent Log House with Peeled Logs

1. Use peeled logs only: For any structure intended to be permanent, never use logs with bark on them. Use _peeled_ logs instead.
2. Prepare the foundation: Lay up the pen of this house as already described and illustrated by Figs. 229, 233, etc.
3. Build walls: Construct the sides and front walls until they reach the desired height.
4. Frame the roof: Frame your roof after the manner shown in Fig. 49 or any other method that suits your preference or convenience. In this case, use the Susitna form for the end plates.
5. Create end plates: Make the end plates by first severing the root of a tree and leaving an elbow or bend at the end of the trunk (Fig. 264). Flatten the elbow by scoring and hewing as described under the heading of the Susitna house.
6. Carve grotesque heads: Carve the elbows at the terminals of the end plate to represent grotesque heads (Fig. 253).
7. Ensure quality construction: The house should be built very carefully, even though it is made of rude material. Handle the materials in a neat and workmanlike manner.
8. Use straight logs for walls: Only use the straightest logs available for the walls of the house.
9. Supports for piazza: If there is a wide front to the house, additional supports may be needed for the piazza. With a narrow front, log puncheons will be sufficiently stiff to support themselves.
10. Compare with Wyoming olebo: The house should resemble the Wyoming olebo (Fig. 236) but differ in that it is a two-story house built on the American log-cabin plan, with logs continued up to the top of the gable as seen in the Olympic (Fig. 240).

Materials Required: Jack-knife, small sticks (to represent logs), glue.

Steps to Build the Model:
1. Scale Down Measurements: Use a scale where an inch or half-inch represents a foot. Measure all sticks accordingly.
2. Build a Toy House: Sit on the ground or floor and experiment with building a toy house or miniature model until you are satisfied with the design.
3. Assemble the Model: Glue the little logs of the pen together, ensuring that the roof can be removed and reattached like the lid of a box.
4. Use as Reference: Keep your model to use in place of an architect's drawing; it will help backwoods workmen understand the design better than traditional plans or sections on paper.

Additional Notes: The model allows for flexibility in adjusting the layout, such as placing the kitchen at the back of the house instead of on one side.

To roll logs using hand power:

1. Securely fasten the ends of two ropes inside the cabin.
2. Pass the free ends of the ropes around the log, first under it and then over the top of it.
3. Bring the free ends of the ropes up to a group of men.
4. By pulling on the free ends, the men roll the log up to the top of the cabin.

This method was commonly used by early pioneers without the use of tools or animals.

To roll logs using oxen and a pulley system:

1. Fasten a chain to each end of the log.
2. Attach a pulley-block to the side of the cabin opposite the skids.
3. Run the rope through the pulley-block to the oxen, similar to how it is run to men in Fig. 182.
4. When the oxen are started, the log slides up the skids to the loose rafters _N_, _O_, _P_.
5. Once the log reaches the rafters, it can be easily shoved and fitted into place.

This method was used when oxen were available for assistance in moving heavy logs.

Materials Needed: Logs, saws (two-handed), planks, temporary supports.

Steps to Pit-Saw a Log:
1. Position the Log: Place the log on a stable surface or in a pit if available, ensuring it is secure and level.
2. Use Two-Handed Saw: Use a two-handed saw (as shown in Fig. 175) for cutting through logs.
3. Work with Assistant: Have another person assist by holding the other end of the saw to ensure even pressure and control during the cutting process.
4. Cut Along Desired Line: Work the saw back and forth along the desired line, maintaining a steady rhythm and applying consistent force.
5. Secure Log if Necessary: If the log is particularly large or difficult to cut, use temporary supports or braces to stabilize it during the process.

Notes: Pit-sawing is a traditional method used for cutting logs into planks or other shapes. It can be physically demanding but is an effective technique when done properly.

Materials Needed: Tree to be felled, axe, saw (two-handed), temporary supports.

Steps to Fell a Tree Safely:
1. Notch the Tree with an Axe: Begin by notching the tree with an axe at the desired point where you want it to fall. This notch should be on the side opposite to the direction in which you want the tree to fall.
2. Use Two-Handed Saw for Final Cut: After notching, use a two-handed saw (as shown in Fig. 176) to make the final cut through the tree trunk.
3. Ensure Proper Direction of Fall: Make sure that the notch and subsequent cuts are made so that the tree will fall in the intended direction, avoiding obstacles or structures.
4. Use Temporary Supports if Needed: If the tree is large or unstable, use temporary supports to help guide its fall and prevent it from toppling unpredictably.

Notes: This method was commonly used in early logging practices and is still applicable today for controlled felling of trees.

To construct front steps for a log house:

• Use flattened logs or puncheons, as shown in Fig. 183.
• Ensure the steps are securely attached to the structure of the house.
• The design should allow for safe and stable access to the entrance of the log house.

This method provides a functional and traditional way to add front steps to a log house.

Steps to construct a sandbag revetment wall:

1. Fill the bags: Fill each bag about three-fourths full with earth or a dry soil-cement mixture and tie the choke cords.
2. Tuck in corners: After filling, tuck in the bottom corners of the bags.
3. Bottom row construction: Place all bags as headers for the bottom row of the revetment wall.
4. Alternate rows: Build using alternate rows of stretchers and headers with joints broken between courses. The top row consists of headers.
5. Positioning layers: Position the sandbags so that the planes between the layers have the same pitch as the base (at right angles to the slope of the revetment).
6. Orientation: Place all bags so that side seams on stretchers and choked ends on headers are turned toward the revetted face.
7. Backfilling: As the revetment is built, backfill it to shape the revetted face to a slope of 1:4 (the face must lean against the earth it is to hold in place). The base for the revetment must be on firm ground and dug at a slope of 4:1.

Note: A sandbag revetment will not stand with a vertical face. It requires a sloped face.

Protective shelters are typically constructed aboveground using cavity wall revetments and earth-covered roof structures, or below ground using airtransportable sections. They serve as command posts, observation posts, medical aid stations, supply and ammunition shelters, and sleeping or resting shelters.

Fighting bunkers are enlarged fighting positions designed for squad-size units or larger. They can be built aboveground or below ground and are usually made of concrete. Some are prefabricated and transported forward to the battle area by trucks or air.

If constructed properly with appropriate collective protection equipment, shelters and bunkers can provide protection against chemical and biological agents.

Sandbags are used to build walls of fighting and protective positions in a manner similar to bricks. They are also useful for retaining wall revetments.

• Material: Sandbags are made of acrylic fabric, which is rot and weather resistant. They have a life of at least 2 years with no visible deterioration under all climatic conditions. Older-style cotton bags deteriorate much sooner.

• Filling: To prolong the useful life of sandbags, fill them with a mixture of dry earth and portland cement in the ratio of 1 part cement to 10 parts dry earth. Alternatively, use a 1:6 ratio for sand-gravel mixtures. Filled bags can also be dipped in a cement-water slurry.

• Stabilization: After filling, each sandbag is pounded with a flat object (e.g., a 2 by 4) to make the retaining wall more stable.

When the requirement for filled sandbags exceeds the capabilities of soldiers using only shovels, it is more efficient to fill bags from a stockpile using a lumber or steel funnel as shown in illustrations. This method allows for faster and easier filling of large quantities of sandbags.

Individual soldiers carry entrenching tools and have access to picks, shovels, machetes, and hand carpentry tools for excavation and vertical construction work.

Earthmoving equipment, such as backhoes, bulldozers, and bucket loaders, is used for excavating protective positions for vehicles and supplies. These machines are typically used for larger or more rapid excavation when the situation permits. However, they cannot dig out the exact shape desired or remove the amount of earth necessary, so manual completion of the excavation is usually required.

Overview: When using the built-in-place method, the officer in charge of construction divides the men into working parties with specific duties:

1. Laying out the foundation
2. Grading and excavating
3. Laying out and cutting various sizes of material

If a party completes its task before the building is completed, it is assigned a new task. For example, if the party laying out the foundation completes its work before erection of the building is begun, it may be assigned a new duty such as cutting rafters.

Order of Construction: Parts are built in the following order:
• Footings
• Piers
• Sills
• Joists
• Floor
• Sole
• Studs
• Plates
• Girts
• Rafters
• Bracing
• Siding
• Sheathing
• Roofing
• Doors
• Windows
• Steps
• Inside finish (if used)

Overview: The number and size of each piece in a section is given to the man in charge of the cutting party.

Steps for Cutting Timber:
1. Cut the timber to the correct length with a handsaw or power saw.
2. Measure the length using a square and tape.
3. After one piece has been cut, it may be used as a pattern for marking the remaining pieces.
4. Set up the pattern by nailing two blocks to the piece of correct size, one near each end, as shown in figure 5-2. These blocks act as stops to hold the pattern in place on the timber to be marked.

Multiple Crews: Several cutting and assembling parties may be used at one time on different types of sections.

Overview: The panel method (preassembly method) requires careful planning before the actual construction. Most Army buildings are now built by this method as follows:

1. Determine Section Sizes and Numbers: Before measuring and cutting lumber, the number and size of sections that are alike should be determined from the blueprint. This ensures the correct numbers of each piece.
2. Assign Crews for Cutting and Assembling: The carpenter assigns a crew to cut and assemble one section. In most cases, a template is built as a guide for assembling the section. It should be built square, correct in size, and level.
3. Use Standard Panels: Most TO construction now built by the panel method uses the basic 8 foot by 10 foot panel (fig. 51) with special door panels, window panels, and modified panels. Modified panels are smaller by the actual width of a 2 x 4 and are used as end panels.

Additional Details: Detailed drawings of this type of panel construction including roof and gable panel are included in TM 5-302.

Overview: The method of erecting buildings directly affects the time, labor, and material needed. There are two main types of erection methods:

• Built in place: Each piece is separately erected in its proper place.
• Panel method: A complete section is built as a unit and then set in the building in the proper place. This method is used extensively because it makes for greater speed, better control over working parties, and better use of manpower. It also allows the use of a standard list of sizes for each similar section; standard plans shown in TM 5-302 further simplify construction.

Considerations: When selecting an erection method, factors such as construction plant layout, distribution of material, number of skilled and semiskilled men available, and number and type of units to be constructed must be considered. Planning permits an orderly series of operations and prevents duplication of effort and waste of material.

Materials Required:
• A single piece of canvas
• Coarse seam or tapes for fastening

Procedure:
1. Cut the canvas into an equal-sided triangle, with one side designated as the door opening.
2. Ensure there is no waste cloth by carefully measuring and cutting the fabric to fit the triangular shape.
3. Fasten the two sides (Nos. 1 and 2) together using a coarse seam or tapes for secure attachment.
4. The resulting structure will form a simple, efficient tent with one side open as the entrance.

Notes:
• This design is ideal for lightweight camping due to its minimal material usage.
• Ensure that the seams are strong enough to withstand wind and weather.

Materials Required:
• Canvas
• Small-size gas pipe or limber poles
• Guy lines (optional)

Procedure:
1. Take the triangular tent design from Fig. 10 and modify it into a conical shape, forming a canopy.
2. Use small-size gas pipe or limber poles to create a large hoop, which will be used to secure the circular shape of the canopy.
3. Secure the hoop by attaching it to the edges of the canvas.
4. If using guy lines, ensure they are attached at strategic points for stability; however, note that guy lines may interfere with the structure and should be used cautiously.
5. A small addition of material can transform this canopy into a Sibley tent by adding walls to enclose the space.

Notes:
• This design is suitable for use as an awning or temporary shelter in open areas.
• The hoop provides structural support and helps maintain the shape of the canopy.

Materials Required:
• Canvas
• Marking tools (e.g., chalk or pins)

Procedure:
1. Lay out the canvas on a flat surface.
2. Use radial lines to divide a semi-circle into eight equal angles of 22-1/2 degrees each, creating reference points for ring placement.
3. Mark these radial lines and use them as guides to locate all necessary loops and rings based on the diagram in Fig. 12.
4. Ensure that the layout is consistent with the dimensions provided in the accompanying table for different tent designs (Fig. 1-11).
5. Each ring should be labeled according to its corresponding figure number for clarity during construction.

Notes:
• This method ensures uniformity and accuracy when constructing multiple types of tents from a single piece of canvas.
• The layout is scalable, meaning it can be applied to any size of material.

Materials Required:
• Canvas
• Safety pins or temporary fasteners
• Guy lines with hooks and slides
• Tape or double hemming tools

Procedure:
1. If unsure about the placement of rings on your canvas, suspend the tent by its center ring to test the shape.
2. Temporarily secure the loops using safety pins to allow for adjustments before finalizing the structure.
3. Ensure that all guy lines have hooks or snaps at one end and slides at the other end for easy attachment and adjustment.
4. The edge of the canvas where the large ring is fastened should be bound with tape or hemmed twice to reinforce it, especially since this area forms the door in most tents.

Notes:
• This preparation step ensures that the tent is both functional and durable.
• Reinforcing the edges helps prevent tearing and extends the life of the canvas.

Materials Required:
• A single piece of canvas measuring 90 inches wide by 15 feet long

Procedure:
Use the following table to determine dimensions for various tent shapes:

|Size|Dimensions|Area, Sq. Ft.|Height, Ft.|Remarks|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|1|7-1/2 ft. triangle|25|6-1/4|One side open|
|2|6-1/2 X 15 ft.|65|6-1/4|One side open|
|3|6 x 7-1/2 ft.|45|4-1/2|One side open|
|4|7-1/2 x 8 ft.|60|5-1/2|One side open|
|5|7-1/2 ft. triangle|25|7-1/2|One side open|
|6|6-1/4 x 6-1/4 ft.|39|7|Enclosed|
|7|7-1/2 ft. diam.|44|6-1/2|Enclosed|
|8|5 x 7-1/2 ft.|37-1/2|6-1/2|2-1/2 ft. wall|
|9|7-1/2 x 8 ft.|60|6-1/2|No.8, with fly|
|10|15 ft. triangle|97|6-1/4|Enclosed|
|11|11-1/4 ft. circle|108|5|Canopy, no sides|

Notes:
• These dimensions are scalable and can be adjusted based on the size of your canvas.
• The table provides a variety of options for different camping needs, including enclosed tents, open-sided shelters, and canopies.

Materials Required:
• A single piece of canvas measuring 90 inches wide by 15 feet long

Procedure:
1. Use the layout diagram in Fig. 12 as a guide for marking and cutting the canvas.
2. The dimensions provided in the table can be used to create ten different tent shapes, including triangles, rectangles, and circular designs.
3. Ensure that each design is cut according to its specified area, height, and remarks (e.g., enclosed or open sides).
4. Use the marked rings and loops as reference points for assembling each type of tent.
5. Adjust fastenings as needed by temporarily securing with safety pins before finalizing the structure.

Notes:
• This method is highly efficient, allowing for maximum use of a single piece of canvas.
• The versatility of this approach makes it ideal for scouts preparing for various camping scenarios.

Materials Required:
• 13 yards of 8 oz. duck canvas
• Scissors or cutting tool
• Ruler or measuring tape
• Pins
• Sewing needle and thread
• Hemming tools

Steps to Construct the Tent:
1. Purchase Canvas: Obtain 13 yards of 8 oz. duck canvas from a department store or dry goods store at approximately seventeen or eighteen cents per yard, totaling $2.21.
2. Lay Out Canvas: Place the strip of canvas on a flat surface and cut one end square.
3. Mark Measurements for First Gore:
- Measure up 8 inches along one edge from the cut corner and draw a line to the opposite corner.
- From this corner, measure out 7 ft. 8 in. along the edge on one side and 5 ft. 9 in. on the other side from the end of your 8-inch measurement.
4. Cut First Gore: Use a ruler to draw another diagonal across the canvas at the ends of these measurements. Cut this section out; this is the first gore of your tent.
5. Create Corresponding Gore for Other Side:
- Turn the gore over and lay it down on the strip of canvas so as to measure off another one exactly like it. This will be the corresponding gore for the other side of the tent.
6. Make Second Pair of Gores:
- On the remaining strip of canvas, measure 5 ft. 9 in. along one edge from the pointed end and 3 ft. 10 in. on the opposite edge.
- Join these points with a diagonal to create the second gore. Use this as a pattern to cut out another duplicate by reversing it and laying it down on the strip of canvas.
7. Make Third Gore:
- On one edge of your remaining strip, measure 3 ft. 10 in. from the point, and on the other side, measure 1 ft. 11 in.
- Draw a diagonal across these measurements to create the third gore.
8. Use Leftover Canvas for Back Triangle:
- From the leftover piece of canvas (approximately two feet long), cut out a triangle with sides measuring 1 ft. 11 in.
9. Assemble Tent Pieces:
- Pin your three gores together to form one side of the tent, as shown in the illustrations.
- Pin the other two sides together along the ridge pole area.
10. Sew and Hem Edges:
- Sew all the pieces together securely.
- Sew in the back triangle and hem all around the edges.
11. Create Ridge Pole Opening:
- Leave a small hole at the peak of the little triangle through which the ridge pole must pass.

Notes:
• Ensure that the canvas is cut precisely to match the measurements provided.
• Use strong thread and secure stitching to ensure durability in outdoor conditions.

Materials Required:
• A rectangular piece of canvas or cloth equal to two squares (e.g., 7x14 or 9x18 sheet)

Steps to Construct the Tent:
1. Select the Material: Choose a rectangular piece of canvas or cloth that is twice the size of a square (e.g., 7x14 or 9x18). This will provide more space and comfort.
2. Prepare the Canvas: Ensure the material is clean and free from any damage. No cutting is required; simply use the canvas as-is.
3. Attach Suspension Ring (Optional): If desired, fasten a suspension ring at the center of one side for hanging the tent from a support such as a tree or pole. The ring should be 1-1/2 inches or 2 inches in diameter and well-reinforced to prevent tearing out.
4. Hang the Tent: Hang the rectangle by one corner from any convenient support (e.g., a tree, pole, or rope). This will create a roomy and warm shelter with part of one side open toward the fire.
5. Secure the Tent: If needed, use pegs and guy lines to secure the tent to the ground for stability.

Additional Notes:
• Reinforce the canvas along the lines of strain from peg to pole if needed.
• If your material is large, additional pegs and guy lines may be required for stability.

Materials Required:
• A square piece of canvas or cloth (7x7 sheet for one person, 9x9 for two)

Steps to Construct the Tent:
1. Select the Material: Choose a square of canvas or cloth that is large enough to accommodate your needs. A 7x7 sheet is suitable for a single person, while a 9x9 sheet can comfortably house two people.
2. Prepare the Canvas: Ensure the material is clean and free from any damage. No cutting is required; simply use the canvas as-is.
3. Attach Suspension Ring (Optional): If desired, fasten a suspension ring at the center of one side for hanging the tent from a support such as a tree or pole. The ring should be 1-1/2 inches or 2 inches in diameter and well-reinforced to prevent tearing out.
4. Hang the Tent: Hang the square by one corner from any convenient support (e.g., a tree, pole, or rope). This will create a comfortable shelter that sheds rain and reflects heat.
5. Use as a Fly or Ground Cloth: The square can also be used as a tent fly or ground cloth for other tents.

Additional Notes:
• Reinforce the canvas along the lines of strain from peg to pole if needed.
• If your material is large, additional pegs and guy lines may be required for stability.

Procedure:

1. Choose a location with sufficient timber and natural materials for construction.
2. Select the appropriate shelter type based on available resources and environmental conditions (e.g., single lean-to, double lean-to, wigwam, tree-pit shelter, or chopped/fallen tree).
3. Gather materials such as branches, leaves, bark, and other natural resources to construct the framework and insulation of the shelter.
4. Construct the shelter using the following steps:
- Single lean-to: Use a single pole or branch for support, then cover it with branches, leaves, or fabric for insulation.
- Double lean-to: Build two leaning structures that meet at the top to form a more stable and insulated shelter.
- Wigwam: Create a dome-like structure using multiple poles tied together at the top, then cover with natural materials such as leaves, bark, or snow for insulation.
- Tree-pit shelter: Dig around the base of a tree and use it to support the structure. Cover the pit with branches, leaves, or fabric for insulation.
- Chopped or fallen tree: Use an existing fallen tree or cut down a tree to create a natural framework that can be covered with materials for insulation.
5. Ensure the shelter provides adequate protection from wind, cold, and precipitation.
6. Check the stability of the structure regularly and make adjustments as needed.

Procedure:

1. Identify the appropriate shelter type based on the environment:
- In wooded areas, consider constructing one of the following:
- Single lean-to: A simple structure using a single pole or branch for support.
- Double lean-to: Two leaning structures joined together to form a more stable and insulated shelter.
- Wigwam: A dome-like structure made from branches and covered with natural materials such as leaves, bark, or snow.
- Tree-pit shelter: A shelter built around the base of a tree, using the trunk for support and insulation.
- Chopped or fallen tree: Use a fallen tree or cut a tree to create a natural structure that can be covered with materials for insulation.
- In open country or barrens, consider constructing one of the following:
- Tent roof shelter: A simple frame covered with canvas, tarps, or other available material to mimic a tent.
- Snow trench: Dig a shallow trench in snow and cover it with branches or fabric for insulation and protection from wind.
- Snow house: Construct a dome-shaped structure using compacted snow as the primary building material.
- Snow wall: Build a barrier of snow to block wind and provide some level of insulation.
- Snow cave: Dig into a snowbank or drift to create an insulated shelter that can protect against extreme cold.

Procedure:

1. Understand that shelter construction is not based on strict rules but should be adapted to the environment and available materials.
2. Use only tools and equipment typically issued to a tent group for building shelters.
3. Consider the following factors when constructing a shelter:
- Type and condition of terrain: Choose flat or stable ground where possible.
- Availability of natural materials: Use timber, branches, leaves, snow, or other available resources.
- Individual imagination and initiative: Be creative in adapting construction methods to the situation.
4. Follow general measurements as a guide but adjust based on environmental conditions and material availability.
5. Ensure that the shelter provides adequate protection from wind, cold, and precipitation.

Procedure:

1. Install the vestibule only at one end of the tent, facing the prevailing wind, to reduce heat loss when the door is frequently used.
2. Avoid using a vestibule on the more leeward end where drift will accumulate.
3. Ensure that rapid exit in case of fire or other emergency is assured by proper vestibule placement.
4. In areas with severe winds, site the tent crosswise to the anticipated wind direction since the curved roof tolerates wind load better than flat ends, reducing buffeting.
5. Do not use a vestibule on a tent intended for aid station use because standard litters cannot negotiate the right angle turn required in the short vestibule.

Procedure:

1. Clear snow from the ground surface to obtain a lower silhouette and gain advantage of warmer ground temperatures.
2. Place coniferous boughs or similar material on the ground for insulation and comfort.
3. If clearing snow is impractical, pack the snow with skis or snowshoes until a firm base is provided for pitching the tent.
4. Place the tent pole on a log or other suitable support to keep it from sinking into the snow.
5. Provide support for the stove under similar conditions.
6. In open terrain with strong wind, build a snow wall on the windward side of the tent to protect it from wind and make heating easier.
7. Pitch the tent with the entrance 45° downwind (see figure 3-5). Variable winds may require construction of a windbreak at the entrance.
8. In high winds, anchor the tent securely using natural anchors or by digging suitable holes in the snow for deadmen.
9. Place snow cloth flat on the ground outside the tent, and use stones, logs, or other heavy objects on top of the snow cloth to assist in anchoring the tent.
10. If natural anchors are not available, dig a hole into the snow large enough to insert a pole or log approximately one meter (3') long with the tent line attached. Fill the hole with snow and pack it well. In time, the packed snow will freeze and securely anchor the tent.
11. Avoid driving metal pins into frozen or rocky ground when excessive force is required.
12. On rocky ground, tie tent lines around heavy rocks and weight them down with other stones.
13. When pitching on ice:
- If the ice thickness is not excessive, chop a small hole through the ice.
- Use a short stick or pole with a piece of rope or wire tied in the middle to push through the hole and turn it across underneath the ice (see figure 3-6c).
- For very thick ice, cut a hole 30 to 60 cm (1' to 2') deep, insert a deadman, and fill the hole with slush or water. When frozen, this provides an excellent anchor point.
- Fasten a piece of rope or wire to the tent line after securing the deadman to prevent accidental damage when removing it from the ice.

Procedure:

1. When striking the tent in winter, remove snow and ice that has accumulated on the tent to prevent it from doubling in weight.
2. Remove snow and ice by shaking the tent or beating it with a mitten or stick.
3. If the snow cloth is frozen to the ground:
- Carefully remove the snow and ice around it using chopping or shoveling to avoid damaging the material.
- Use a shovel to ease between the cloth and the ground, gently prying the cloth away from the ice.
4. Ensure that all materials are removed carefully to prevent damage to the tent fabric.

Materials Required:
• 2 ponchos
• Stakes or short pieces of rope
• Forked sticks (optional)
• A third poncho (optional, for ground cloth)

Steps to Construct the Shelter:
1. Lay Ponchos Flat: Spread two ponchos on the ground with their hood sides up and long sides together.
2. Secure Hood Openings: Adjust and tie the hood drawstrings tightly on both ponchos to close the hood openings completely.
3. Join the Ponchos: Fasten the snap fastener studs of one poncho to the snap fastener sockets of the other poncho at the point where they are joined.
4. Form a Ridge: Raise the joined portion of the ponchos to create a ridge.
5. Secure with Ropes and Forked Sticks: Attach ropes to grommets at the ends of the ridge, run them over forked sticks, and secure them on the other side.
6. Stake Out the Shelter: Stake out the corners and sides of the combined ponchos as described in the one-man shelter procedure.
7. Add a Ground Cloth (Optional): A third poncho may be snapped into the other ponchos to form an additional ground cloth for added protection.

Procedure:

1. Identify suitable areas for building shelters based on environmental conditions:
- Wooded areas: Preferred location due to availability of timber, wood for fires and heat, cover from air and ground observation, and natural windbreak.
- Open country: Can be used but may require more effort to construct shelter and provide protection from the elements.
- Barren areas: Limited materials available; only snow can be used for construction. This is less ideal due to lack of resources for building and insulation.

2. Consider factors such as terrain, availability of natural materials, and wind direction when selecting a location.
3. Avoid exposed or elevated positions that increase exposure to cold winds and reduce protection from the elements.

Objective: Minimize the need to exit the debris hut during cold nights to prevent heat loss.

Procedure:
1. Plan ahead and use the bathroom before entering the debris hut for the night.
2. If it is necessary to leave the shelter, do so only in an emergency or when absolutely required.
3. When exiting the shelter, cover yourself with additional layers of clothing or blankets to retain body heat.
4. Move quickly and minimize the time spent outside the shelter to reduce exposure to cold air.
5. Upon returning to the shelter, immediately reseal all openings and reinforce the insulation around the entrance.

Notes:
• Exiting a debris hut during cold weather can cause significant heat loss that may be difficult to recover from.
• In extreme survival situations, it is best to avoid leaving the shelter unless absolutely necessary.

Step 1: Collect debris and add it around the shelter.

Step 2: Aim for a thickness of about two feet on every side of the shelter.

Step 3: Keep collecting debris until you think you have enough, as this is only halfway done. Many people underdo this step, leading to discomfort or cold during the night.

Objective: Reduce free space inside the debris hut to improve heat retention.

Procedure:
1. After constructing the basic framework of the debris hut, assess the interior for any open or unused spaces.
2. Add more debris (such as leaves, branches, and other natural materials) to fill in all gaps on the floor and around the sleeping area.
3. Ensure that the debris is packed tightly to minimize air movement inside the shelter.
4. Use additional layers of insulation if available, such as dry grass or animal fur, to further reduce heat loss.

Notes:
• The more free space there is in a shelter, the harder it is for body heat to maintain a comfortable temperature.
• Packing the interior with debris improves thermal efficiency and helps retain warmth during cold nights.

Objective: Properly seal the tunnel entrance to prevent cold drafts and heat loss.

Procedure:
1. After digging the tunnel entrance for the debris hut, ensure that it is positioned away from direct wind exposure if possible.
2. Use natural materials such as leaves, branches, and dirt to create a tight seal at the entrance.
3. Layer additional debris over the entrance to block any gaps or openings that could allow cold air to enter.
4. Check the entrance periodically during the night for signs of drafts or movement of debris.
5. If a draft is detected, immediately take steps to reinforce the seal using available materials.

Notes:
• A poorly sealed tunnel entrance can significantly reduce the effectiveness of the shelter in cold weather.
• It is important to be thorough when sealing the entrance to ensure maximum insulation and comfort.

Applying Tar or Pitch Cement

• Before fastening laps, paint a two-inch strip with the tar or pitch cement that comes with all patent roofing.
• This helps the roofing stick to the lower strip and ensures a tight joint when put in place.
• Do not drive nails carelessly or with too much force; ensure the cap fits snugly against the roofing.
• If nails go into holes or open cracks, do not remove them, but thoroughly cement around them.

Proper Overlap and Leak Prevention

• Allow six inches for overlaps at joints where one strip joins another.
• Ensure that two strips of roofing never meet at the ridge, leaving a joint to invite a leak over the ridge-pole.
• Examine diagrams if you fail to understand the description.

Roofing Foundation

• The roofing foundation is crucial for the quality of the roof.
• Ensure the sheathing boards are:
- Matched and of uniform thickness if possible.
- Laid close together with no gaps.
- Free from nails, protruding knots, and sharp edges.
• Avoid using green lumber, as it may shrink, warp, or even break the roofing material when exposed to sunlight.
• For very particular work where rafters are spaced wide apart, lay a course of boards over the planking at right angles to it.

Gutters

• To finish gutters, fasten and carefully cement with pitch or tar the edge of the strip about half-way to the gutter.
• Bring the other edge onto the roof, then lay the next strip over this strip so that it will overlap at least two inches.
• Proceed to lay the balance of the roofing in the same way.
• Never nail the middle of the strips; nail only along the edges.
• The end strips should always be lapped over the edges of the roof and fastened.

Valleys

• If there are valleys in the roof, use a long strip of roofing and lay it up and down in the direction of the valley.
• Press the strip into the hollow so that it takes the shape of the valley itself.
• Allow the edges of the roofing to overlap the strip in the valley an equal distance on both sides of the valley.

How to Lay the Roofing

• Begin laying roofing at the eaves.
• Always lay the roll of patent roofing with the inside surface facing outward, and in the same direction that the boards run—not at right angles to them.
• Start nailing at the center of the edges of the strips, working both ways toward the ends—never the reverse, as this may cause the roofing to become wrinkled, twisted, or crooked.
• Set caps even with the edge of the laps, spacing them about two inches apart between their centers.

Preparing the Roofing for Laying

• Use tar paper, birch bark, or patent roofing which are more pliable than tin or shingles.
• In very cold weather, place patent roofing in a warm room for a few hours before using it to make it easier to work with.
• Never attempt to cut birch bark, tar paper, or patent roofing with a dull knife.

Procedure:

1. Start at the bottom of the shelter and lay the first row of bark shingles for walls, ensuring edges overlap.
2. For the roof:
- Lay one row of shingles from the bottom up to the ridge pole.
- Rest a pole on top of this row to hold them in place.
3. Lay the next row of shingles alongside by slipping their edges under the first row.
4. Continue until both sides are fully covered.
5. Cover the ridge with additional bark as shown in Fig. 36 for a finished look.
6. This method will create a comfortable and aesthetically pleasing camp.

To calculate the rafter line length, use the following steps:

1. Measure or determine the total run (horizontal distance from the wall plate to the center of the ridge) and the total rise (vertical height from the wall plate to the ridge).
2. Use the Pythagorean theorem: $\text{Rafter Line Length} = \sqrt{(\text{Total Run})^2 + (\text{Total Rise})^2}$.
3. Ensure that all measurements are taken accurately, as even small errors can lead to misfitting rafters.

Notes:
• This method assumes a common rafter, which is the most basic type of rafter used in gable roofs.
• The formula calculates the length of the rafter line (the sloped edge), not including any overhangs or other adjustments.
• If detailed building plans are available, use them to verify total run and rise measurements.

Procedure:

1. Purpose: The hood or canopy is used in tropical climates to protect the screened opening at the ends of buildings.
2. Materials Required:
- 2 x 4 lumber for rafters and knee braces.
- 8- or 10-penny nails.
- Sheathing material (same as roof sheathing).
- Roll roofing.
3. Steps to Construct the Hood:
a. Frame the hood to the end walls using short rafters.
b. Secure the rafters to the building with knee braces, as shown in figure 3-4.
c. Nail the rafters to the wall so that the bottom edge is flush with the bottom of the end plate.
d. Use 2 x 4's for both the rafters and knee braces, fastened with 8- or 10-penny nails.
e. Apply sheathing using the same material as the roof sheathing.
f. Cover the sheathing with roll roofing to complete the hood.
g. Ensure that the hood extends approximately 2 to 3 feet from the building for adequate protection.
4. Notes: This structure is specifically designed for use in tropical climates and should be installed according to figure 3-4.

To determine the rafter dimensions using a steel square:

1. Measure or determine the unit run (horizontal distance per rafter spacing) and the unit rise (vertical height increase per rafter spacing).
2. Mark the unit run on one leg of the steel square and the unit rise on the other leg.
3. Align the steel square with the edge of the rafter material and mark the intersection point, which represents the slope of the rafter.
4. Use this marked line as a guide to cut the rafters at the correct angle for installation.

Notes:
• This method is useful when detailed building plans are not available or verification is needed.
• The unit run and unit rise can be determined based on the type of roof covering, use of the building, or other controlling factors.
• Ensure that all measurements are consistent with the overall dimensions of the structure to avoid misalignment during installation.

Procedure:

1. Purpose: To finish eaves when rafters have no overhang.
2. Materials Required:
- Sheathing boards.
- Fascia board (minimum size: 1 x 4).
- Nails.
3. Steps to Finish Eaves Without Overhang:
a. Place the first piece of sheathing on the rafters so that it hangs over the rafters by 3 to 4 inches.
b. Install a fascia board under the sheathing and nail it to the rafter ends to close the opening between the rafters.
c. Ensure that the fascia board is at least a 1 x 4 in size.
4. Notes: This method ensures proper closure of the eave area when no overhang is present.

Procedure:

1. Purpose: To finish the eaves of a sloping roof in TO (Tentative Order) construction.
2. Materials Required:
- Boards for sheathing and fascia.
- Nails.
3. Steps to Finish Eaves:
a. The lines where the sloping roof meets the vertical wall are called eaves.
b. In TO construction, finish the eaves as shown in figures 1 and 2 of figure 3-5 (see text for reference).
c. Ensure that the roof has an overhang at the eaves. The length of this overhang depends on climatic conditions and the level of protection required.
d. Close the spaces between rafters on top of the plate with boards.
4. Notes: This method is the most efficient and should be used wherever possible.

Procedure:

1. Purpose: To finish the ends of a roof sheathing when there is no overhang on gables.
2. Materials Required:
- 1 x 4 boards (for securing roofing at the gable ends).
- Nails.
3. Steps to Finish Ends Without Overhang on Gables:
a. If the sheathing does not overhang the gables, it should end at the rafters edge.
b. The wall sheathing should end at the top edge of the rafter.
c. Lap the roofing over the end of the rafters by a minimum of 3 inches and fasten it with a 1 x 4 board nailed over the roofing along the gable.
d. Ensure that the top edge of the board is even with the top of the rafter.
4. Notes: This method ensures proper finishing at the ends of the roof sheathing when no overhang is present.

Procedure:

1. Purpose: To finish the ridge of a roof using corrugated sheet metal.
2. Materials Required:
- Corrugated sheet metal.
- Nails.
3. Steps to Finish Ridge with Corrugated Sheet Metal:
a. When using corrugated sheet metal, ensure that the metal overhangs the sheathing by 1 to 2 inches.
b. The sheathing may also overhang on the gable ends as it does on the eaves to provide added protection to the walls.
4. Notes: This method ensures proper coverage and protection at the ridge of the roof.

Procedure:

1. Purpose: To finish the ridge of a roof using roll roofing.
2. Materials Required:
- Roll roofing.
- 1 x 2 strips (for securing roofing at the ends).
- Nails.
3. Steps to Finish Ridge with Roll Roofing:
a. At the ridge of the roof, where two slopes meet, ensure that the covering is finished in such a way that it will not leak.
b. Use roll roofing and finish it as shown in figures 3 and 4 of figure 3-5 (see text for reference).
c. Roll the roofing around the edge of the sheathing and back on the under side far enough so that a 1 x 2 strip can be nailed underneath to hold the roofing.
d. Alternatively, cut the roll roofing flush with the end of the sheathing and nail a 1 x 2 strip flush with the edge to secure it.
4. Notes: This is the simplest method for finishing the ridge and promotes efficiency in construction.

Materials Needed: Shovel, small cobblestones or broken bluestone.

1. Dig a foundation for your fireplace and chimney at least three feet deep.
2. Fill the hole with small cobblestones or broken bluestone until nearly reaching ground level.
3. Use this filled area as the base to lay your hearth and chimney foundation.
4. Failing to dig a proper foundation can lead to frost heaving, which may cause the chimney to tilt, crack, or even collapse over time.
5. A solid foundation is essential for both structural integrity and aesthetic appearance of the house.

Materials Needed: Stones, mortar or cement.

1. When laying stones for the chimney, rough and uneven exteriors are acceptable and may even enhance the visual appeal of the structure.
2. Ensure that the inside is as smooth and even as possible to reduce soot buildup and minimize the risk of chimney fires.
3. Lay the stones in mortar or cement, ensuring each stone fits firmly in its bed without rocking.
4. Make sure each stone breaks joints with the one directly below it, meaning that the crack between two stones on an upper tier should align with the center of a stone on the lower tier.
5. This technique helps lock the stones together and prevents cracks from spreading further.
6. If joints are not broken properly, a crack may extend from the top to the bottom of the chimney, potentially causing it to collapse.
7. Above the fireplace, build four walls for the chimney (as done with the stick chimney), as shown in Figure 271.
8. Ensure that the top of the chimney extends at least three feet above the roof, which improves airflow and reduces fire risk.

Procedure:

1. Construct the fireplace in the middle of the room, if desired. This is not preferred by the author but may be chosen for novelty.
2. Use rough stones to build the fireplace, ensuring it is high enough so that one tending the fire does not have to stoop and risk backache.
3. Build the foundation in the ground underneath the cabin, extending up through the floor.
4. Place a flat stone on top of the fireplace, similar to other designs shown in previous figures (Fig. 274, 275).

Details:
• The fireplace should be built with proper support and materials for long-term use.
• In Fig. 276, the fireplace is constructed using rough stones and designed to be high for comfort when tending the fire.
• A puncheon support can be used for a plank mantel (as shown in Fig. 277).

Materials Needed:
• Clay or mud
• Stones (pebbles to flagstones)
• Planks (for temporary walls, if needed)

Steps to Build the Mud Hearth:
1. Construct the fireplace walls using logs and sticks for the chimney.
2. Apply clay plaster over the stones of the fireplace to protect them from fire damage.
3. Build a large opening in the wall of your house where you want the fireplace, ensuring it is properly framed with planks or logs.
4. Lay sill logs on the fireplace foundation, starting with two side logs and then adding a back log, notched to match the cabin walls.
5. Build the fireplace walls as shown in the diagram (Fig. 271).
6. Mix clay or mud and use it to create a firm, smooth hearth by hammering the clay down hard until it is level and compacted.
7. Place stones of varying sizes on top of the clay hearth, leveling them by sinking their undersides into the clay for uniformity.
8. Use moist clay as mortar when building the fireplace walls, ensuring they are at least one foot thick and tightly packed.
9. Optionally build a temporary plank wall inside the fireplace, fill the space between it and the logs with moist clay, and ram it down hard until reaching the top of the fireplace.
10. Remove the temporary planks, then smooth the interior of the fireplace using a wet cloth.

Notes:
• Clay is essential to prevent fire from igniting wooden structures.
• This method ensures durability and safety for long-term use.

Procedure:

1. Erect the fireplace stone work so that it extends into the cabin itself, protecting the ends of the logs from the fire.
2. Place two flat iron bars beneath the stone over the top of the fireplace (labeled _A_ , _B_ in Fig. 274). These iron bars are essential for safety and to prevent cracking or falling of the stone due to heat or settling of the chimney.
3. Ensure the stone (_A_, _B_) rests on the flat iron bars even if it has cracks, as this will prevent damage from the fire or structural settling.
4. For a more durable setup, use a single slab of bluestone (as in Fig. 275) and line the fireplace with fire-brick for added protection.

Details:
• The stone work should be built up inside the cabin to support a mantelpiece.
• A plank (_C_, _D_) is nailed under the mantelpiece against the log before the stone work is constructed, providing a finished look to the mantel.
• In Fig. 274, the hearth is made of flat stones laid in cement, while in Fig. 275, it is one large slab of bluestone from the quarry.
• The fireplace can be used for cooking purposes, with a crane hanging over the flames and additional items like a wrought-iron broiler, toaster, and brazier placed on or near the mantel.

Materials Needed:
• Stones or sod
• Stakes (forked or notched)
• Small logs and billets

Steps to Build the Fireplace and Chimney:
1. Drive stakes into the ground at the location where you want to build the fireplace.
2. Lay three walls for windbreaks using stones or sod against these stakes.
3. Place small logs horizontally in the forks of the stakes.
4. Build a pyramidal log pen on top of these logs, which will serve as the chimney.
5. Use this design for camps, rudimentary shacks, and simple log cabins.

Notes:
• This is a basic version suitable for temporary or primitive shelters.
• For more elaborate structures, consider building a finished fireplace and chimney with proper materials.

Materials Needed: Stones, mortar or cement.

1. In regions like East Tennessee and Kentucky, stick chimneys have been observed to last for many years.
2. These fireplaces are often lined with stones, but in areas where stones were scarce (like Illinois), they were made using the stick chimney method described above.
3. A stone chimney is considered an improvement over a log chimney, though it may not require significantly more skill to build.
4. Ensure that the structure of the chimney is stable and well-constructed for long-term use.

Procedure:

1. Enter the unit weight of the soil (lb/cf) as determined on site.
2. Enter the proposed depth of soil cover (ft).
3. Enter the S value (in³):
- If using wood, use values from Table B-2.
- If using steel, use values from Table B-4.
4. Enter the stringer spacing (in).
5. Enter the FS value (psi):
- If using wood, use values from Table B-3.
- If using steel, enter 50,000 psi.
6. Enter the stringer span length (ft).
7. Multiply line 1 by line 4, and enter the result.
8. Multiply line 7 by line 2, and enter the result.
9A. Multiply line 8 by line 6, and enter the result.
9B. Multiply line 9A by line 6, and enter the result.
9C. Divide line 9B by 8, and enter the result.
9D. Divide line 9C by line 3, and enter the result.
9E. Divide line 9D by line 5, and enter the result.
10. If the value from line 9E is:
- Greater than 0 but less than 1.0: Proceed to line 10.
- Greater than 1.0: The roof system is overloaded. Take one of the following actions and recompute from line 1:
a. Decrease stringer spacing.
b. Decrease span length.
c. Use a material with a higher "S" or "FS" value.
d. Decrease soil cover.

Notes:
• This procedure is used to determine if the roof can withstand the expected blast load from contact burst rounds.
• If the result exceeds 1.0, the design must be adjusted to ensure structural integrity.

Procedure:

1. Use the result from line 9E as the input for Figure B-2.
2. Locate the value on side A of Figure B-2 that corresponds to the line 9E result.
3. Find the corresponding value on side B and enter it into the calculation.
4. Use the following curves based on material type:
- If using wood, use the µ = 1 curve.
- If using steel, use the µ = 10 curve.

Notes:
• This step is used to determine the final load capacity of the roof after adjusting for material properties and design parameters.
• Ensure that the figure or graph is accurate and corresponds to the correct version of the source text.

Procedure:

1. For wood stringers, use the values from Table B-2 and Table B-3 (from the source text) to determine the moment of inertia (I), section modulus (S), modulus of elasticity (E), and maximum dynamic flexural stress (FS).
2. For steel stringers, use the values from Table B-4 for moment of inertia (I) and section modulus (S).
3. Use the following default values:
- Modulus of elasticity (E): 29
- Maximum dynamic flexural stress (FS): 50,000 psi

Notes:
• These parameters are essential for calculating the structural integrity and load-bearing capacity of the roof.
• If tables are unavailable, consult a structural engineer or use standard values based on material type.

Procedure:

1. Use Table B-1 (from the source text) to find the transmission coefficient based on the type of soil and its properties.
2. The transmission coefficient is used in conjunction with other parameters to calculate the roof's ability to withstand blast loads.

Notes:
• This value is essential for determining how much of the blast load is transmitted through the earth cover to the structure below.
• If Table B-1 is unavailable, consult a structural engineer or use default values based on soil type.

Materials Needed:
• Clay
• Shingles
• Thatch

Steps to Design the Roof Based on Material:
1. Clay Roof: Construct it as flat as possible with only enough pitch to shed water.
2. Shingle Roof: Ensure a rise of at least one foot high for every four feet wide.
3. Thatched Roof: Create a rise of 45°, which is the same as the rise of a line drawn from corner to corner of a square.

Notes:
• These specifications help ensure proper water runoff and structural integrity based on the roofing material used.
• Refer to figures in the original text for visual examples.

Procedure:
1. Discuss the importance of a proper thatching job when building a shelter.
2. Highlight how effective thatching can protect against weather elements such as rain and wind.
3. Emphasize the need for durable materials and proper construction techniques.

Procedure:

1. Select the shelter type: Choose between an Adirondack, Wickup, Bark Teepee, Pioneer, or Scout shelter based on your needs and available materials.
2. Gather materials: Collect bark, poles, and other necessary supplies for construction.
3. Prepare the site: Clear a flat area of debris and ensure it is suitable for building.
4. Build the structure:
- For an Adirondack shelter: Use logs or poles to form a frame with a sloping roof.
- For a Wickup shelter: Construct a dome-like shape using bent poles covered with bark or other materials.
- For a Bark Teepee: Create a conical structure with a central pole and layers of bark around it, leaving the top open as a chimney.
- For a Pioneer shelter: Build a simple rectangular frame with a roof made from bark or branches.
- For a Scout shelter: Use lightweight materials to construct a quick, temporary shelter suitable for short stays.
5. Secure the structure: Ensure all components are firmly tied and anchored to withstand weather conditions.
6. Add finishing touches: Cover any exposed areas with additional layers of bark or other insulating materials for protection against rain and cold.

Notes:
• Each shelter type has specific construction techniques detailed in the original text (referenced as figures 11-14).
• Choose a shelter design that matches your environment, available resources, and intended use.

Procedure:

1. Cut the bark: Divide the bark into convenient sections based on the size of your shelter.
2. Start at the bottom: Begin placing the first piece of bark flat against the wall of your shelter, with one edge set on edge (vertical).
3. Overlap pieces: Place each subsequent piece so that its edge overlaps the previous one by a few inches.
4. Continue around the structure: Repeat this process all the way around the shelter until you complete the first layer.
5. Add layers above: Stack another layer of bark directly above the first, ensuring both the top and bottom edges overlap by three to four inches or more.
6. Secure the bark: Use stakes driven into the ground or poles laid over the bark to hold it in place, depending on your shelter's shape.
7. Cover the roof: Continue layering bark up to the comb (peak) of the roof and over the area where the sides meet at the top to cover the ridge, crown, or apex for protection from rain.
8. Chimney consideration: In teepee-shaped shelters, leave the top open as a chimney for smoke to escape.

Notes:
• This method is suitable for various shelter types like wigwams and teepees.
• Ensure proper overlap between layers for durability and weather resistance.

Materials needed: Mud, cement or concrete, wire netting.

Steps:
1. Fill the space between walls with mud.
2. Plaster the outside with cement or concrete.
3. The wire netting will hold the plaster or concrete, allowing for a thinner covering than in ordinary buildings.
4. After the mud dries on the inside, it will be practically as strong as a solid concrete wall when covered with a crust of cement or plaster.

Procedure:

1. Understand the purpose of slanting walls: Slanting walls are easier to thatch and cover with turf, especially in northern regions where true sod is not available.
2. Imitate Native American techniques: Follow the example of Indian shelters by constructing slanting walls for your shacks, shanties, or shelters in the woods.
3. Use perpendicular walls if necessary: If you have materials such as boards, stone, brick, or logs, it is acceptable to use perpendicular walls.
4. Consider regional differences: In areas with thick grass and interlacing roots (middle country), slanting walls may be less critical than in the far North.

Notes:
• The Pima Indians thatch their houses with arrow brush and sometimes bank the sides of their shacks with dirt.

Materials Required:
• Brushwood about 1 inch in diameter
• Sharpened pickets
• Twine or wire for tying

Steps to Construct:
1. Prepare the Framework:
- Drive sharpened pickets into the ground at 20-inch intervals.
2. Weave Brushwood:
- Weave pieces of brushwood (about 1 inch in diameter) onto the framework.
3. Complete the Hurdle:
- Continue weaving until the hurdle is approximately 6½ feet long and as high as the revetted wall.
4. Transport and Install:
- Carry the completed hurdle to the position where it will be installed.
5. Secure the Hurdle:
- Tie the tops of the pickets back to stakes or holdfasts for stability.
- Wire the ends of the hurdles together to ensure they are firmly in place.

Materials Required:
• Corrugated metal sheets
• Plywood
• Mud for camouflage and thermal radiation reduction

Steps to Construct:
1. Install Sheets/Planks:
- Use corrugated metal sheets or plywood to construct the revetment.
2. Lap Edges as Needed:
- Lap edges and ends of sheets or planks to achieve the desired height and length.
3. Apply Mud for Camouflage:
- Smear all exposed metal surfaces with mud to reduce reflection of thermal radiation and improve camouflage.

Materials Required:
• Small horizontal round poles
• Pickets (3 inches in diameter)
• Boards or planks (if available)
• Holdfasts or struts

Steps to Construct:
1. Install Pickets:
- Drive pickets into the ground at appropriate intervals, similar to the continuous brush revetment.
2. Use Poles Instead of Brushwood:
- Replace small horizontal brushwood with small round poles, cut to the length of the revetted wall.
3. Alternative Material:
- If available, use boards or planks for quicker installation instead of poles.
4. Secure Pickets:
- Hold pickets in place using holdfasts or struts.

Materials Required:
• Dimensioned timber for frames
• Pickets (3 inches in diameter)
• Stakes, holdfasts, and wire

Steps to Construct:
1. Construct Timber Frames:
- Build frames from dimensioned timber that fit the bottom and sides of the position.
2. Install Pickets:
- Drive pickets into the ground on the position side of the facing material at appropriate intervals (determined by soil type and facing material).
3. Secure Pickets:
- Brace pickets apart across the width of the position to hold the facing material in place.
4. Anchor Pickets:
- Drive an anchor stake or holdfast into the top of the bank and tie it to the top of the picket.
5. Wire Fixing:
- Place several strands of wire straight and taut across the width of the position, passing them through a groove or channel cut in the parapet.

Materials Required:
• Small saplings or poles
• Birch bark (or alternative materials such as brush, hay, straw, or mud)
• Ropes made from natural fibers

Steps to Construct:
1. Build the Framework:
- Create a dome-shaped structure using small saplings bent into arches.
- Sink the ends of the poles into the ground in a circular pattern and bind them together at the top for stability.
2. Covering the Frame:
- Traditionally, cover the framework with large strips of birch bark secured by ropes stretched over it (Fig. 32).
- If birch bark is unavailable, use smaller pieces of bark or other local materials such as brush, hay, straw, palmetto leaves, palm leaves, rushes, or mud.
3. Add a Door:
- Install a door using a blanket portière for entry and privacy.

Notes:
• This design is highly adaptable to different environments and can be modified based on available resources.
• Using mud as a covering material transforms the structure into an adobe hut, which provides additional insulation.

Materials Required:
• Upright posts
• Crosspieces
• Poles for the roof and sides
• Local materials (such as brush or thatch)

Steps to Construct:
1. Build the Framework:
- Use four upright posts to support two crosspieces at the top.
- Place poles across the crosspieces to form a flat roof, similar to wick-ups described in traditional manuals.
2. Construct the Sides:
- The sides are not upright but made by resting leaning poles against the eaves of the structure.
3. Adaptability for Climate:
- In colder regions, add insulation using local materials such as brush or thatch to make the lodge warm and tight.
- In arid regions, ensure proper ventilation by leaving gaps in the sides or using lighter materials.

Notes:
• This design is versatile and can be adapted for use in various climates across the country.
• The flat roof provides a stable surface that can be used for additional purposes such as storage.

Materials Required:
• Small saplings
• Bear-grass or other local thatching material
• Yucca leaves (for string)

Steps to Construct:
1. Build the Framework:
- Use small saplings bent into arches, as shown in Fig. 30.
- Sink the ends of the poles into the ground in a circular pattern.
2. Secure the Structure:
- Bend the tips of the poles over and bind them together to form overlapping loops for stability.
3. Thatching the Roof:
- Cover the dome with bear-grass arranged in overlapping rows.
- Secure the thatch using strings made from yucca leaves (Fig. 31).

Notes:
• This design is adaptable to various environments and can be modified based on local materials.
• The use of bear-grass provides a durable, weather-resistant roof.

Materials Required:
• Small saplings or poles
• Rank grass (or corn-stalks and leaves)

Steps to Construct:
1. Build the Framework:
- Use small saplings or poles to create a tent-shaped structure.
- The framework should be similar to that described in Figs. 18 and 19, but without birch bark covering.
2. Thatching the Roof:
- Cover the long, sloping sides of the shelter with a thick layer of rank grass found locally.
- In modern times, corn-stalks and leaves are used for thatching due to their availability and effectiveness.
3. Stability Check:
- Ensure the structure is stable and secure before adding any additional materials or using it as a shelter.

Notes:
• The Apache Hogan is designed for practicality and adaptability to local conditions.
• Corn-stalks are recommended for their durability and availability in certain regions.

Materials Needed:
• Old bits of tin
• Rags
• White lead (paint)
• Carpet tacks or small wire nails
• Hammer
• Paint brush
• Red roof paint (optional for camouflage)

Steps to Patch a Leaking Tin Roof:
1. Inspect the Damage: Carefully examine the roof for cracks, rust holes, and open seams.
2. Prepare the Area: If there are any obstacles or difficulty in driving tacks through the tin, use a small wire nail and hammer to punch holes first.
3. Secure Edges with Tacks: Use carpet tacks and a hammer to neatly tack down the edges of the opening (see Fig. 303). Place tacks close together for better coverage.
4. Apply White Lead: With a paint brush, thickly coat the mended parts with white lead (see Fig. 304).
5. Cover Holes with Rags: Cut a strip of rag to fit over the holes and tack it at its four corners (see Fig. 305). Ensure that the rag is securely fastened.
6. Apply Another Coat of White Lead: Cover the rag with a thick coat of white lead (see Fig. 306).
7. Cover with Tin Patch: Place a piece of tin over the damaged spots and secure it with tacks, placing them close together (see Fig. 306). Ensure that the patch is tightly secured.
8. Final Coating of White Lead: Apply another coat of white lead to cover the entire patched area.
9. Camouflage Patches (Optional): Once the white lead has dried, use red roof paint to dab over the white patches, making them blend with the surrounding tin.

Important Notes:
• Ensure that every joint, nail hole, and seam is properly covered, tacked, and coated with white lead. Water can seep through even small openings if they are not made absolutely tight.
• This method will last for at least twenty years if done correctly.
• Avoid using modern sheet steel for roofing as it disintegrates more quickly than older tin.

Procedure:

1. Identify cracks or holes in the roof that need repair.
2. Bend up bits of tin or sheet iron to create metal shingles (as shown in Fig. 300).
3. Drive the metal shingle into place:
- Underneath the shingle above the hole so that the 'weather' part of the tin covers the leak
- Underneath the leaking shingle itself
- Or drive a new shingle up under or over the damaged one.
4. For larger leaks, create a patch using multiple shingles as shown in the right-hand corner of Fig. 295½.
5. Do not remove old shingles unless the hole is very large.

Notes:
• These repairs are effective for keeping out rain and snow, preventing moisture damage to timbers.
• While not aesthetically pleasing, they provide a dry roof over your head.
• Over time, new shingles will tone down in color and become less noticeable.

Procedure:

1. Go up in the attic and inspect the roof for areas where daylight is visible through the roof.
2. Push a wooden peg through each hole to mark its location on the roof.
3. Once all holes are marked, prepare for climbing onto the roof:
- Remove your shoes
- Put on a pair of woollen socks to reduce the risk of slipping
- Alternatively, wear new india rubber shoes with corrugated soles, which also provide good traction when climbing on the roof.

Notes:
• This method ensures accurate identification of roof holes before repairs begin.
• Proper footwear is crucial for safety during roof work.

Procedure:

1. Assess the Damage: Inspect the roof for leaks or openings around the chimney or other areas. Look for signs of water intrusion, such as wet spots inside the shelter or visible damage to shingles.

2. Gather Materials: Collect any available materials that can be used to patch the roof. These may include:
- Strips of tar roofing compounds
- Old tin sheets
- Oilcloth (ensure it is not too worn or perforated)
- Waterproof sealant or caulk if available

3. Prepare the Area: Clear any debris, loose shingles, or damaged materials from the area around the leak. Ensure that the surface is clean and dry to promote adhesion.

4. Apply Sealant: If using tar roofing compounds or waterproof sealant, apply a generous amount over the affected area. This will help prevent water from seeping through the patch.

5. Cover with Material: Place the chosen material (tar strips, tin sheet, or oilcloth) over the damaged section of the roof. Secure it in place using nails, adhesive, or additional layers of roofing compound if necessary.

6. Seal Edges and Gaps: Ensure that all edges and gaps around the patch are sealed tightly to prevent water from entering through any openings. Use additional sealant or tar as needed.

7. Inspect for Effectiveness: After completing the repair, inspect the patched area to ensure it is secure and watertight. Check periodically for signs of wear or new leaks.

Warnings/Notes:
• If the damage is extensive or if there are structural issues with the roof, consider seeking professional assistance.
• Ensure that all materials used are waterproof and suitable for outdoor use.
• Regular maintenance can help prevent future leaks and extend the life of your shelter's roof.

### Install Corrugated Roofing Sheets

Materials Required:
• Corrugated sheet iron
• Solid or slatted wood sheathing, or wood purlins
• Special nails (lead-headed nail or galvanized nail with neoprene washer)
• Common wire nails (optional, but may cause leaks)

Steps:
1. Prepare the Roof Structure: Ensure that the roof has a slope of at least 4 inches per foot. Corrugated roofing is not suitable for roofs with slopes less than this.
2. Install Sheathing or Purlins: Secure solid or slatted wood sheathing, or wood purlins to the roof frame.
3. Position Roofing Sheets: Place corrugated sheet iron over the sheathing or purlins. Overlap sheets by one or two corrugations on the sides and 6 or 8 inches on the ends, depending on the slope of the roof.
4. Secure with Nails:
- Use special nails (lead-headed or galvanized with neoprene washer) for secure fastening.
- If common wire nails are used, be aware that they may rust and cause slight leaks.
5. Nailing Pattern:
- Nail the side laps every 2 feet.
- Nail the end laps every foot to ensure proper sealing and stability.

Notes:
• Corrugated roofing should not be used on roofs with slopes less than 4 inches per foot.
• Ensure that all overlaps are properly secured to prevent water infiltration.

### Install Flashing at Roof-Wall Junctions

Materials Required:
• Metal or roll roofing material
• Girt (if the vertical wall is not sheathed)
• Cutting tools

Steps:
1. Identify the Junction Location: Locate where a roof meets a vertical wall.
2. Prepare the Wall Structure: If the vertical wall is not sheathed, install a girt between the studs to support the flashing material.
3. Cut Flashing Material: Cut metal or roll roofing material to fit along the junction of the roof and the wall.
4. Position Flashing Material: Place the flashing material over the joint where the roof meets the vertical wall.
5. Secure Flashing Material: Secure the flashing with appropriate fasteners or adhesive, ensuring it is tightly sealed along the junction.

Notes:
• Metal or roll roofing may be used as the flashing material.
• Ensure that all edges are properly sealed to prevent water infiltration.

### Install Prepared Roofing Sheets

Materials Required:
• Prepared roofing sheets
• Solidly sheathed roof structure
• Special nails (with large, flat heads)
• Asphaltic material (normally included with the roofing)

Steps:
1. Prepare the Roof Structure: Ensure that the roof is solidly sheathed and suitable for prepared roofing. For slopes of more than 2 inches per foot, use an -inch end lap and a 4-inch edge or side lap.
2. Apply Asphaltic Material: Before installing the sheets, apply asphalt or tar to all laps (edges and ends) to ensure proper waterproofing.
3. Position Roofing Sheets: Lay the prepared roofing strips parallel to the roof slope for better water runoff and reduced likelihood of leaks.
4. Secure with Nails:
- Use special nails with large, flat heads.
- Nail edge and end laps 3 inches on centers.
5. Adjust for Slope:
- For flatter slopes (less than 2 inches per foot), use at least a 6-inch edge lap and ensure all joints are fully cemented.
- Roofs with slopes less than 1 inch per foot require multilayer, built-up roofing instead of prepared roofing.

Notes:
• A 40-pound roll (or 'square') of prepared roofing will cover only 80 square feet in TO construction.
• Rolls of 15- and 30-pound felt cover 320 and 160 square feet, respectively.

### Install Roof Flashings in Valleys

Materials Required:
• Roll roofing (two layers: one 14 inches wide and one 22 inches wide)
• Sheet metal (22 inches wide, optional)
• Cutting tools

Steps:
1. Identify the Valley Location: Locate where two roofs meet at an angle to form a valley.
2. Cut Roll Roofing Material: Cut two layers of roll roofing from a 36-inch width of material:
- One layer should be 14 inches wide.
- The other layer should be 22 inches wide.
3. Position Flashing Material: Place the cut roll roofing or sheet metal along the valley, ensuring that it covers the joint between the two roofs.
4. Cut Back from Valley Center: Cut back the flashing material from the center of the valley by 3 to 4 inches to allow for proper overlap and sealing.
5. Secure Flashing Material: Secure the flashing with appropriate fasteners or adhesive, ensuring it is tightly sealed along the valley joint.

Notes:
• This method provides a hasty but satisfactory expedient for waterproofing valleys.
• Ensure that all edges are properly sealed to prevent water infiltration.

Step-by-step procedure for building a snow house:

1. Begin with the same method as constructing a snow trench.

2. Close in the roof by using snow blocks to build up the ends of the trench and trimming them to form a sharp peak (see Figure 3-22).

3. Lay snow blocks alternately along the sides, leaning inward toward each other. Ensure all snow blocks are cut to the same width so that joints are staggered.

4. Trim the top of the snow blocks for a close fit, ensuring the structure is stable and well-insulated (see Figure 3-23).

Step-by-step procedure for building a tent roof shelter:

1. Lay out the tent on the ground and shape it as if you were pitching it. Mark the outline of this shape in the snow.

2. Remove the tent, then mark the snow again approximately eight inches inside the first mark (see Figure 3-16).

3. Dig a hole inside this second mark to a depth of four feet.

4. Create roof supports by laying logs across the hole. Approximately 10 logs are required (see Figure 3-17). If no logs are available, use the pole and guy ropes from the tent:
- Insert the pole upright in the center of the hole.
- Tie all the guy ropes to the top of the pole and extend them out around the hole in a wagon wheel fashion (see Figure 3-18).
- Ensure the top of the pole does not extend above the surface of the snow.

5. Lay the tent over the roof supports and pile snow on the outside edges and snow flaps.
- In an all-white area, ensure the tent liner is on the outside.
- If the liner is destroyed, use the outer tent as a cover and camouflage with ruck-sack covers.
- If no camouflage material is available, cover the roof with snow. Important: Keep the heat inside the shelter very low to prevent melting of the snow and water seepage through the roof.

6. Alternative method if snow depth is insufficient or concealment is not a priority:
- Dig the hole only three feet deep.
- Place a row of snow blocks 1.5 feet high between the first and second marks around the complete hole (see Figure 3-19).

7. Construct an exit tunnel that goes out level with the floor, then down so that the top of the tunnel entrance is eighteen inches below the floor level. This acts as an air trap to prevent cold air from entering the shelter (see Figure 3-19).

Step-by-step procedure for building snow walls as windbreaks:

1. Cut snow blocks from compact snow.

2. Build a semi-circle of snow blocks to a height of about three feet.

3. Bank up loose snow on the windward side of the wall to increase its effectiveness in blocking wind.

4. Use this structure as a protective barrier behind which you can sleep (see Figure 3-24).

Materials Needed: Strong green hardwood stick (4–5 feet long), with a forked end and sharpened tip

Procedure:
1. Prepare the stick by leaving a fork about six inches long at the butt end to prevent boughs from sliding off.
2. Sharpen one end of the stick so it can be easily poked through a handful of boughs.
3. Gather boughs in small handfuls and string them onto the stick, similar to how you would string fish.
4. Ensure that the butts of the boughs point in different directions for even distribution.
5. Once strung, throw the bundle over your shoulder as shown in Fig. 5 for easy transport.

Alternative Method (if a lash rope is available):
1. Place the boughs on a loop of the lash rope.
2. Bring both ends of the rope up through the loop and sling the bundle across your back, as illustrated in Fig. 6.

Materials Needed: Balsam-tree twigs of varying lengths (18 inches for foundation, 10–12 inches for top layer)

Procedure:
1. Gather balsam twigs in different sizes: longer ones (18 inches) for the base and shorter ones (10–12 inches) for the top.
2. Avoid cutting the twigs with a knife, as this is slow and can blister your hands.
3. Use your fingers to snap the twigs off cleanly:
- Place the thumb on top of the twig, pointing toward its tip.
- Position the two forefingers underneath the twig.
- Press down with the thumb and twist the wrist to snap the twig like a pipe-stem.
4. Ensure you collect enough twigs for comfort; insufficient bedding can lead to discomfort or pain during sleep.

Warning: Be cautious when handling balsam twigs, as they may spring back and slap your face if cut improperly.

Materials Needed: Collected boughs (larger ones for the base, smaller ones for the top), blanket, and clothing bag

Procedure:
1. Lay out a layer of larger boughs on the ground to form the foundation of your bed.
2. Start at the head end of the bed and place the boughs in an overlapping pattern, with their tips pointing toward the head (as shown in Fig. 7).
3. Continue adding layers until the mattress is thick enough for comfort.
4. Cover the bed with a blanket to provide insulation and comfort.
5. Use a bag containing your coat, extra clothes, and sweater as a pillow.

Note: If you do not sleep well after this setup, it may be due to poor-quality food or inadequate preparation by the cook.

Materials Needed:
• Thick layer of balsam or hemlock fans or branches
• Rubber blankets or ponchos
• Sleeping blanket

Procedure Steps:
1. On the floor of your lean-to, lay a thick layer of balsam or hemlock fans or branches with the convex side up and the butts of the stems toward the foot of the bed.
2. Thatch this over with more fans by thrusting the butt ends through the first layer at a slight angle toward the head of the bed, so that the soft tips will curve toward the foot of the bed.
3. Ensure the head of your bed is away from the opening of the lean-to and the foot is toward the opening.
4. Over this bed, spread your rubber blankets or ponchos with the rubber side down, followed by your sleeping blanket on top.

Benefits:
• Creates a soft, springy, and fragrant bed for rest.
• Helps protect against cold and discomfort in outdoor settings.

Materials Needed:
• Small green branches (springy and elastic)
• Hay, straw, dry leaves, or green material
• Rubber blanket or poncho

Procedure:
1. Collect small green branches from any tree that is springy and elastic.
2. Build the mattress as previously described (refer to earlier sections for detailed instructions on mattress construction).
3. Place a thick layer of hay, straw, dry leaves, or even green material on top of the branch base.
4. If using green material, cover it with a rubber blanket or poncho to prevent moisture from seeping through.
5. Add additional layers of blankets for comfort.

Notes:
• This method was successfully used in Kentucky by covering branches with purple blossoms of ironweed and then placing a rubber army blanket over them.
• The result is a comfortable bed that can be as cozy as any traditional mattress.

Procedure:

1. Fell a tree to procure bark.
2. Make a circular cut at the bottom of the trunk and another circular cut at the top.
3. Create a slit connecting the two cuts as described.
4. Use a blunt instrument or stick, whittled to resemble a paper-cutter or dull chisel, to insert under the edge of the bark.
5. Carefully peel the bark back from the tree.
6. If transporting the bark over a distance:
- Roll it up tightly.
- Bind the roll with cord or rope.
- Sling the bundle on your back as shown in Fig. 36 for ease of transport.

WOODEN PALLET SHELTERS

In lieu of wildcrafting wood for wickiups and cabin-style wooden shelters, an abundant building material is available in the form of a truly omnipresent contraption: the wooden pallet. These flat, wooden shipping devices are found in every industrialized nation in the world.

• In a pre-apocalyptic state, they can be found behind most businesses that engage in shipping and/or receiving.
• In a post-collapse survival situation, pallets can be repurposed into a variety of shelters, ranging from simple shelters like wickiups, lean-tos, wigwams, and debris huts to more complex wood cabin-style structures.

See preceding page for pictures.

Procedure:

1. During the winter months, it may be difficult to peel birch bark or other types of tree bark due to cold and dry conditions.
2. The best time to peel bark is during the spring when the sap is flowing, as this makes the process easier.
3. Many varieties of trees will yield slabs of bark more easily at this time of year.